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ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,  | 

IN  THREE  BOO. 
THE    NEW    SCIENCE 

CONSTRUCTIVE   PRINCIPLES 

•Will' 

THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAi 


BY  J 


BOOK  Iff, 


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rBLISHED  BY  .: 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/englishhgrammariOObrowrich 


AN 

ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

IN  THREE  BOOKS. 

DEVELOPING 

THE    NEW   SCIENCE, 

MADE   UP   OF   TH08E 

r.QNSTTftyiJiyft  tfJJMpIPLES 

WHICH  FORM  A  SURE  GUIDE  IN  USING 

THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE; 

BUT  WHICH  ARE  NOT  FOUND  IN  THE  OLD  THEORY  OP 
ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Is  it  not  far  better  to  teach  true,  important  principles,  than  /«&<?, 
unimportant  ones? 


BY  JAMES  BROWN, 

AUTHOR  OF   "THE  EXEGESIS  OP  THE  TRUE  WAT  07  ANALYZING  WORDS,   AND  CON- 
STRUCTIONS OF  DIFFICULT  RESOLUTION,"    "THE  FIR8T,   AND  THE   SECOND 
BOUND  IN  THE  LADDER  OF  EDUCATION,"  AND   "THE  APPEAL  FROM 
THE  OLD  THEORY  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR,  TO  THE     TRUE  CON- 
STRUCTIVE GENIUS  OF   THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE." 


BOOK  a  I. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

PUBLISHED  BY  JOHN  T.  LANGE,  24  S.  SECOND  ST. 


1849. 


* 


B3UCA2iQ14Jfcft. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1849,  by 

JAMES    BROWN, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Eastern  District  of 

Pennsylvania. 


tdJU^^^'    £y*A**-p 


JU-u 
PREFACE. 


L. of**, 


No  stream  can  rise  higher  than  its  source.  A  writer  upon 
the  subject  of  grammar  cannot  avoid  showing,  in  the  very 
construction  of  his  periods,  his  qualifications,  or  his  want  of 
qualifications,  to  form  a  grammar  for  the  language  in  which 
he  writes  his  book. 

If  he  who  attempts  to  form  a  guide  to  a  certain  science, 
violates  the  principles  of  the  science  in  the  construction  of 
his  guide,  what  confidence  can  be  placed  in  his  rule  ?  If 
they  who  have  undertaken  to  improve  the  old  British  system 
of  English  grammar,  as  presented  by  L.  Murray ■,  have  vio- 
lated the  very  principles  of  English  grammar,  in  almost 
every  sentence  which  they  have  formed,  what  confidence  can 
be  reposed  in  their  overgrown  pretensions  ? 

And,  as  the  author  of  a  grammar  evinces,  in  the  very  con- 
struction  of  his  sentences,  ability,  or  a  want  of  ability,  to 
form  a  grammar,  so  he  who  recommends  the  book,  shows, 
in  the  construction  of  his  periods,  a  qualification,  or  a  want 
of  qualification,  to  judge  of  its  merits. 

Recommendations,  as  means  for  securing  the  sale,  and 
adoption  of  a  work,  have  lost  much  of  their  former  efficacy. 
Whether  the  people  have  become  better  qualified  to  judge 
for  themselves;  or  whether  they  have  been  jaded  out  by 
constant  eulogy  upon  the  same  subject,  may  be  decided  by 
the  pertinacity  with  which  grammar  menders  have  pursued 
them  for  almost  thirty  years.  That  a  desire  for  grammar 
making  has  long  been  rampant  in  this  country,  is  obvious 
from  the  countless  number  of  books  on  the  subject  of  gram- 
mar mending. 

For  years  it  has  been  pretended  by  the  many  who  wish 
to  figure  upon  title  pages,  that  Murray  is  in  rags  !  He  has 
been  almost  the  only  subject  of  their  compassion  for  a  long 
time  !  Grammar  menders  surround  him  in  shoals.  Some 
have  darned  his  stockings, — some  have  new-heeled  them, — 
others,  new-toed  them  !     They  have  continued  in  this  way 

\ 


IV  PREFACE. 

forty  years, — indeed,  till  they  have  made  Murray  a  perfect 
show  !  !  Every  stitch  which  is  taken  in  coat,  or  vest,  hose, 
or  pants,  is  submitted  to  all  distinguished  seamsters,  and 
seamstresses,  far,  and  near.  And,  in  due  time,  and  form, 
these  come  forward  in  praise  of  the  masterly  manner  in 
which  Murray  has  been  mended!  I  He  has  been  mended 
up  so  neatly,  and  thoroughly,  by  Mr.  Greenleaf,  by  Mr.  Kirk- 
ham,  by  Mr.  Izigersoll,  by  Mr.  Comly,  or  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Somebody,  that  he  is  not  only  tidy  enough  to  go  into  our 
common  schools,  and  academies,  but  even  into  our  colleges  ! 
Thus  Murray,  in  his  patched  habiliments,  has  been  hawked 
from  place  to  place,  for  years,  under  the  various  names  of 
the  numerous  menders  of  his  wardrobe  !  In  some  instances, 
he  is  called  Greenleaf,  in  some  Kirkham,  in  some  Goold 
Brown,  and,  within  a  few  months,  this  learned,  and  meek 
old  Quaker  has  appeared  under  the  titular  cognomen  of  the 
Reverend  Doctor  Bullions  ! 

Conscious  of  an  unwillingness  in  the  people  to  give  any 
more  encouragement  to  grammar  mending,  Mr.  Bullions 
attempts  to  beguile  them,  in  a  few  siceet-toned  periods,  to 
smile  upon  his  book.  And,  was  it  not  for  the  numerous  in- 
terruptions produced  by  his  grammatical  obliquities,  his 
warbling  would  equal  that  of  the  glades  themselves.  His 
manner,  as  exhibited  in  his  Preface,  is  admirably  well  cal- 
culated to  produce  an  assuagement  of  irritated  feeling. 
Ulysses,  and  Orpheus  did  escape  the  music  of  the  Sirens. — 
But  there  has  been  no  Ohte  to  forewarn  our  literati — hence, 
I  believe,  not  one  has  passed  the  fatal  coast  alive !  But  I 
feel  it  my  duty  to  do  to  the  unlettered,  what  Oirce  did  to 
Ulysses.  I  shall  attempt  to  caution  them,  not  only  against 
the  bewitching  notes  of  the  author  himself,  but  against  all 
the  sweet  harmony  which  is  made  by  the  large  choir  that 
chants  the  merits  of  his  patch-work. 

The  following  is  the  first  sentence  of  the  Preface  : 
"  A  knowledge  of  English  Grammar  is  very  properly  considered 
an  indispensable  part  of  an  English  education;  and  is  now  taught, 
as  such,  in  all  our  Academies  and  Common  Schools." 

I  shall  speak  of  but  one  of  the  several  errors  which  mar 
this  sentence. 

1.  What  is  very  properly  considered  an  indispensable  part 
of  an  English  education  ? 


PREFACE.  V 

Knowledge.     Very  well. 

2.  What  is  now  taught,  "  as  such,"  in  all  our  Academies, 
and  Common  Schools? 

Knowledge! 

3.  But  knowledge  is  taught  as  what  ? 

Knowledge  is  taught  as  an  indispensable  part  of  an  Eng- 
lish education  \ 

4.  John,  do  you  attend  school  now  ? 
"  Yes,  sir." 

5.  What  are  you  studying  ? 
"  The  English  brandies." 

6.  Are  you  more  fond  of  one  branch  than  another  ? 
"I  think  knowledge  is  a  very  interesting  branch  !" 

The  Murray  mender  who  speaks  of  teaching  knowledge, 
deserves  a  patch,  or  two  himself ! 

The  learned  author's  sentence  comprises  thirty  words.  But 
the  following,  which  expresses  all  that  he  intends,  contains 
but  nineteen  words  1 

English  Grammar  is  now  taught  in  all  our  Academies,  and 
Common  Schools,  as  an  indispensable  branch  of  English 
Htudies. 

This  sentence  promises  little  support  to  the  high  reputa- 
tion which  the  author's  admirers  have  endeavoured  to  give 
him,  and  his  work.  But  although  these  gentlemen  speak  in 
an  unusual  strain  of  panegyric ;  yet  their  own  periods  are  so 
often,  and  badly  marred  by  gross  solecisms,  that  their  opin- 
ions will  not  only  not  induce  the  people  to  think  highly  of 
the  Doctor,  and  his  book,  but  will  compel  them  to  think  less 
highly  of  his  friends ! 

I  cannot  believe  that  Dr.  Bullions  is  capable  of  using  the 
English  Language  with  propriety — much  less  do  I  believe 
that  he  is  capable  of  writing  an  English  Grammar  having 
the  rare  merits  which  these  gentlemen  have  ascribed  to  his 
book. 

Mr.  Bullions  would  be  considered  culpably  ignorant  of  tho 
English  Language  even  did  he  make  no  pretensions  to  skill 
in  Grammar. 

I  find  the  following  sentence  in  his  English  Grammar : 

"These  terms  are  generally  derived  from  the  Greek,  or  Latin, 
probably  because  these  Languages  being  now  dead,  and  their  words 

a2 


Tl  PREFACE. 

consequently  not  liable  to  change,  are  considered,  for  this  reason,  a 
better  source  than  any  other,  for  words  of  this  description."  (Page 
202.) 

The  mono,  for  this  reason,  is  nothing  but  a  repetition  of 
the  long  clause,  "  because  tliese  languages  being  now  dead, 
and  their  words  consequently,  not  liable  to  change." 

Where  does  Mr.  Bullions  find  authority  for  the  use  of  the 
syllabane,  a  these  languages  !  ?" 

What  languages  are  "  these  languages  ?" 

Why,  the  Latin,  or  Greek !  !  !  I  saw  Stephen  or  John 
when  they  were  returning  from  school !  !  ! 

Nor  is  this  all. 

"  Are  considered  a  better  source  for  words." 

Do  we  say  source  for,  or  source  of? 

I  understand  the  source  for  this  mischief!  Is  this 
English  ? 

This  sentence  is  replete  with  errors — but  I  shall  not  at- 
tempt to  expose  any  more  of  them. 

The  sentence  which  stands  in  juxtaposition  with  this,  reads 
as  follows — 

"The  convenience  and  utility  of  such  terms,  are  universally 
acknowledged,  and  they  are  preferred  to  other  equivalent  terms 
in  common  use  in  the  language,  because  having  no  other  meaning 
nor  use  than  what  belong;?  to  them  as  technical  terms,  whenever 
they  are  used,  every  person  who  understands  the  science  knows 
precisely  what  is  meant." 

I  do  not  intend  to  exhaust  the  subject  of  error  in  this 
sentence.  This  is  not  the  place  for  me  to  dilate  upon  the 
obliquities  of  those  who  are  endeavouring  to  heal  the  exter- 
nal sores  which  are  the  legitimate  result  of  carious  bones, 
and  vitiated  blood.  Although  I  do  not  intend  to  do  any 
thing  with  the  spungy  thought,  and  the  rugged  surface  of 
this  sentence ;  yet  I  may  be  allowed  to  ask  whence  the  au- 
thority for  the  use  of  nor,  and  than  !  f  I  saw  no  other  man 
than  John  ! 

Does  not  every  school-boy  know  that  where  than  is  pro- 
perly used,  it  is  placed  after  some  word  of  the  comparative 
degree  ? 

1.  "I  who  am  less  than  the  least  of  all  saints." 

2.  Is  one  man  better  by  nature  than  another  ? 

3.  Bullion's  Grammar  is  worse  than  Goold  Brown's. 


PREFACE.  Vll 

"  Because  having  no  other  meaning  nor  use  titan  what  be- 
longs to  them  as  technicals  \" 

Because  having  neither  meaning,  nor  use  except  what  be- 
longs to  them  as  technicals. 

Under  page  114,  Mr.  Bullions  has  made  a  Rule  to  justify 
the  use  of  tJian  after  other  ! 

"  Rule  XXII.  The  comparative  degree  and  the  pronoun  other 
require  than  after  them ;  as,  Greater  than  I ;  No  other  than  he. 

The  part  of  this  rule,  which  relates  to  than,  has  no  basis 
in  the  genius  of  the  English  language.  The  instance,  given 
by  Mr.  Bullions,  in  exemplification  of  this  part  of  the  ltule, 
is  not  English. 

Grammar,  says  Mr.  Bullions,  is  both  a  science  and  an 
art. 

"As  an  art,  grammar  teaches  the  right  method  of  applying 
these  principles  to  a  particular  language,  so  as  thereby  to  express 
our  thoughts  in  a  correct,  and  proper,  manner,  according  to  esta- 
blished usage." 

This  sentence  is  certainly  a  curiosity.  Short  as  it  is,  it 
comprises  seventeen  redundant  words.  The  sentence  has 
thirty-three  words — and  every  idea  which  is  expressed  by  the 
thirty-three,  is  expressed  by  the  following  sixteen : 

"As  an  art,  it  (grammar)  teaches  the  right  method  of 
applying  these  principles  to  a  particular  language." 

"So  as  thereby  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  correct,  and  proper 
manner,  according  to  established  usage!" 

The  syllabane,  the  right  method  of  applying  these  princi- 
ples to  language,  exhausts  the  subject  of  accuracy. 

"  So  as  thereby  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  correct  and  proper 
manner." 

What  is  gained  by  the  use  of  proper  ?  Do  not  correct, 
and  proper  mean  the  same  thing !  ?  And  as  grammar  is 
established  usage  with  reference  to  language,  what  good  re- 
sults from  the  use  of  the  syllabane,  "according  to  established 
usage  T* 

The  sentence  is  substantially  this — 

As  an  art,  grammar  teaches  the  right  method  of  apply- 
ing the  principles  of  grammar  to  a  particular  language,  so 
as  thereby  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  correct  and  proper 
manner,  according  to  the  establislied  principles  of  gram- 
mar  !  ! 


VHl  PREFACE. 

I  will  now  repeat  the  sentence,  upon  parts  of  which,  I 
have  already  made  a  few  reflections  : 

"  The  convenience  and  utility  of  such  terms  are  universally  ac- 
knowledged, and  they  are  preferred  co  other  equivalent  terms  in 
common  use  in  the  language,  becaiut  having  no  other  meaning  nor 
use  than  what  belongs  to  them  as  technical  terms,  whenever  they 
are  used,  every  person  who  understands  the  science,  knows  pre- 
cisely what  is  meant."     (Fifty-four  words.) 

Ten  of  the  words  which  belong  to  this  sentence,  express 
ideas  that  have  a  direct  connection  with  the  first  period  in 
this  chapter.  The  chapter  is  commenced  with  the  follow- 
ing sentence. 

"  GRAMMATICAL  NOMENCLATURE." 
"Every  science,  and  every  art  has  its  particular  nomenclature, 
or  vocabulary  of  technical  terms,  which  are  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  expressing  technically  its  leading  materials,  facts,  princi- 
ples, divisions,  &c."— (Twenty-nine  words.) 

The  legitimate  commencement  of  this  sentence,  is  made 
the  inceptive  part  of  the  third  period  in  the  chapter : 

The  convenience  and  utility  of  technical  terms,  are  wiiver- 
salh/  acknowledged :  every  science  and  every  art  has  its  par- 
ticular nomenclature  which  is  employed  in  expressing  its 
leading  materials,  facts,  principles,  divisions,  &c.  (Twenty- 
nine  words.) 

Having  incorporated  the  ten  words  which  have  no  connec- 
tion with  the  third  sentence,  with  the  author's  first  period,  it 
may  be  well  to  give  his  second  sentence  : 

2.  "  These  terms  are  generally  derived  from  the  Greek  or  Latin, 
probably,  because  ihese  languages  being  now  dead,  and  their  words 
consequently  not  liable  to  change,  are  considered,  for  this  reason,  a 
better  source  than  any  other  for  words  of  this  description."  (Forty- 
one  words.) 

"  These  terms  are  generally  derived  from  the  Greek  or  Latin ; 
probably  because  the  words  of  a  dead  language  are  less  liable  to 
change  than  those  of  a  living  one." — (Twenty-nine  words.) 

3.  "  And  they  are  preferred  to  equivalent  terms  in  common  use, 
because,  being  purely  technical  in  meaning,  every  person  who  un- 
derstands the  science,  understands  them."  (Twenty-four  words — ■ 
instead  of  Fifty-four.) 

Mr.  Bullions  says  that  technical  terms  are  generally  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  or  Latin  because  these  languages  are 
dead ! 

T  cannot  conceive  that  the  death  of  a  language,  would  in- 


PREFACE.  IX 

ducc  any  nation  to  make  it  the  source  of  technical  terms. 
Nor  can  I  understand  in  what  way  the  death  of  a  language, 
can  exert  any  influence  over  the  mutability,  or  immutability 
of  technicals. 

Under  page  203,  Mr.  Bullions  gives  a  fair  specimen  of 
his  reasoning  powers. 

"  They  (certain  authors)  are  actually  urging  us  to  abandon  such 
terms  in  grammar,  as  noun,  pronoun,  adjective,  verb,  &c,  and  to  use 
in  their  stead,  such  words  as  name,  substitute,  describer,  asserter,  and 
the  like,  because,  as  is  alleged,  they  possess  more  of  the  character 
of  English  words, — that  is,  they  propose  to  abandon  the  peculiar 
and  appropriate  technical  terms  of  the  science,  and  to  employ  words 
in  a  great  measure  disqualified  for  this  purpose,  by  the  very  fact 
of  their  being  already  used  for  other  purposes." 

Is  substitute  a  more  common  word  than  subject  ?  Yet  Mr. 
Bullions  uses  the  word,  subject,  as  a  technical  in  grammar ! 
Under  page  86,  he  says — 

"  The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of.  In  English  it  is  al- 
ways the  nominative  to  the  verb." 

"The  subject  or  nominative,  the  verb,  and  the  object,  may  each 
be  attended  by  other  words,  called  adjuncts." 

And  is  not  object  a  word  in  very  common  use  ?  Is  adjunct 
even  generally  employed  as  a  technical  I  ? 

Is  article*,  word  which  is  restricted  to  a  technical  use  !  ? 
Is  there  a  word  in  the  English  language  that  is  less  tedi- 
nical  than  article  ? 

Yet,  under  page  7,  Mr.  Bullions  employs  this  as  a  tech- 
nical word,  which  (to  use  his  own  language)  is  in  a  great 
measure  disqualified  for  this  purpose,  by  the  very  fact  of  its 
being  already  used  for  other  purposes  1 1 

Have  not  the  words,  present,  perfect ,  imperfect,  future,  in- 
dicative, potential,  conjunction,  &c.  &c,  been  disqualified 
by  the  very  fact  that  they  are  used  fyr  other  purposes !  ? 

John  is  present.  Is  is  a  verb  of  the  present  tense  !  In- 
deed, present  cannot  be  applied  to  the  tense  of  is,  because  it 
may  be  applied  to  John  ! 

Yet  under  page  30,  I  find  the  following — 

"The  Present  tense  has  three  distinct  forms." 

Under  the  same  page,  I  find  the  word,  auxiliary,  used 
technically. 

Still  as  auxiliary  is  a  word  which  is  generally  applied 


X  PREFACE. 

untechnicalli/,  it  is  not  a  fit  technical  term — hence  Mr.  Bul- 
lions has  done  wrong  to  use  it  as  such  !  ! 

Under  the  same  page,  I  find  Mr.  Bullions  uses  the  word. 
simple,  as  a  technical !  ! 

If  the  un  technical  application  of  a  word,  disqualifies  it  for 
a  technical  term,  why  does  Mr.  Bullions  use  the  words,  first, 
second,  third,  and  even  person  as  technicals  !  ? 
John,  give  me  the  first  book." 


1.  John,  &  noun  of  the  second  pc 


/so  II 


2.  Me,  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person  ! 

3.  Book,  a  noun  of  the  third  person  ! 

By  the  by,  is  not  a  book  a  singular  person  ? 

Does  not  Mr.  Bullions  use  the  word,  singular,  and  the 
word,  number  too,  technically  !  ?  0,  this  book  on  grammar, 
that  is  chanted  as  No.  1  by  so  many  of  the  learned  of  our 
country,  is  indeed  a  singular  book  !  ! 

Under  page  203,  I  find  the  following — 

"When  we  use  the  word  noun  every  one  knows  that  we  speak  of 
a  class  of  words  so  denominated  in  grammar." 

Ah !  Is  the  word,  noun,  the  name  of  a  class  of  words  !  ? 
Why,  under  page  9,  the  word,  noun,  is  defined  to  be  the 
name  of  a  thing  I     Is  a  thing  a  class  of  wOrds  !  f 

A  noun,  the  name  of  a  class  of  words  !  and  yet  the  fol- 
lowing is  presented  as  its  definition  : 

"A  noun  is  the  name  of  a  thing  ;  as  John,  London" 

John  is  neither  a  thing,  nor  a  class  of  words — and  if  Lon- 
don is  a  thing,  it  is  a  singular  thing  that  this  great  city, 
should  be  presented  as  a  class  of  words  !  / 

The  old  theory  has  no  class  names  for  words — in  this  re- 
spect it  is  destructively  defective. 

A  noun  is  a  class  of  words.  John  is  a  noun — hence  John  is 
a  class,  of  words  !  Mr.  Bullions !  Mr.  Bullions !  Mr.  Bullions ! 

Why  Mr.  Bullions  has  attempted  to  advocate  the  use  of 
terms  in  grammar,  that  are  purely  technical,  I  do  not  know. 
From  all  that  I  am  able  to  learn,  however,  he  wishes  to  put 
certain  writers  upon  grammar  out  of  his  way  !  But  as  the 
old  nomenclature  is  any  thing  but  technicaly  Mr.  Bullions 
has  shown  little  wisdom  in  objecting  to  the  terms  which 
other  writers  wish  to  introduce,  upon  the  ground  that  they 
are  without  technical  character. 


I'KKl'ACK.  XI 

I  agree,  however,  with  Mr.  Bullions  that  nomenclatures 
should  be  purely  technical  Still  I  use  the  old  terms  which 
are  not  at  all  technical. 

Under  page  16,  I  find  the  following — 

II.  "Of  the  Case  of  Nouns." 
"  Case  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun  with  respect  to  the 
other  words  in  a  sentence." 

(As  case  is  a  very  common  word,  why  does  Mr.  Bullions 
use  it  as  a  technical  term  in  grammar  T) 

"Nouns  have  three  cases,  viz.  the  Nominative,  Possessive,  and 
Objective." 

"  The  nominative  case  expresses  that  of  which  something  is  said 
or  declared;"  as,  Go  thou  to  school,  John. 

The-  word,  school,  which  Mr.  Bullions  himself  parses  in 
the  objective  case,  is  the  only  word  in  this  sentence,  which 
illustrates  this  definition  of  the  nominative  case  !  ! 

The  nominative  case  expresses  that  of  which  something  is 
said  or  declared  ! 

John  is  spoken  to,  not  of!  Hence  John  cannot  **>  in  the 
nominative  case  by  virtue  of  Mr.  Bullions'  definition  of  tnis 
case  !  Nothing  is  said  of  the  person  denoted  by  tfwu.  Hence 
this  pronoun  is  not  in  the  nominative  case  ! !  Nothing  is  said 
to  the  school.  But  something  is  said  of  it — the  school  is 
spoken  of.  Hence  the  word,  school,  is  in  the  nominative 
case — and,  I  presume,  governed  by  the  preposition  to  !  !  Mr. 
Bullions  himself  says  that  the  school  is  spoken  of  And  as 
the  school  is  spoken  of,  something  must  be  said  of  it — it  is 
impossible  to  speak  of  a  thing  without  saying  something 
of  it! 

But  it  may  be  inquired,  How  I  know  that  Mr.  Bullions 
says  that  the  school  is  spoken  of? 

Under  page  9,  he  says — 

"  The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of." 

Mr.  Bullions  parses  school  as  a  noun  of  the  third  person. 
And  in  this  he  declares  that  the  school  is  spoken  of 

Case,  says  Mr.  Bullions,  is  state,  or  condition.  The  nomi- 
native case  of  a  noun,  then,  is  the  nominative  condition  of  it ! 
Hence  it  follows  that  it  is  not  the  noun  which  expresses  that 
of  which  something  is  said ;  but  it  is  the  nominative  condi- 
tvm  which  expresses  it ! ! 


Xll  PREFACE. 

"The  nominative  case  (condition)  expresses  that  of  which  some- 
thing is  said  ;   as,  the  sun  shines." 

Does  the  word,  sun,  express  what  is  spoken  of  here  ?  T 
understand  it  so.  And,  if  I  am  right,  the  word,  sun,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Bullions,  is  the  very  case  of  the  word  sun! 

What  !    What  patching  ! 

The  word,  sun,  then,  is  the  state,  or  condition  of  the  word, 
sun,  lt  in  respect  to  the  other  words  in  the  sentence ! !" 

I  regret  to  find  the  names  of  gentlemen  of  whom  I  have 
hitherto  thought  well,  appended  to  these  books  wrhich  are 
called  by  their  authors,  improvements  on  Murray. 

In  the  preceding  sentence,  /is  in  the  nominative  case  to 
regret  only.  But  Mr.  Bullions  says  that  /is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case  to  every  word  in  the  sentence  except  I!  ! 

Case,  says  he,  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun  in  respect 
to  the  other  words  in  a  sentence !  ! 

But  how  is  /  in  the  nominative  case  ?  Does  /  denote 
u  that  of  which  something  is  said  ?"  Certainly.  /,  then, 
denotes  that  which  is  spoken  of!  Hence  /  is  of  the  third 
person !  ! 

"  The  nominative  case  expresses  that  of  which  something  is  said 
or  declared." 

The  third  person  is  the  person  of  which  something  is  said ! ! 
Something  is  said  of  the  person  expressed  by  I- — hence  /is 
of  the  third  person  !  ! 

2.    The  Possessive  Case. 

"The  possessive  case  denotes  that  to  which  something  be- 
longs;" as, 

1.  John  has  a  book  ! 

2.  This  is  the  book  of  John  ! 

John  in  both  instances,  denotes  the  person  to  whom  the 
book  belongs — hence  John  is  in  the  possessive  case  !  !  ! 
3.    The  Objective  Case. 

"  The  objective  case  denotes  the  object  of  some  action  or  re- 
lation;" as, 

1.  The  rock  was  smitten  by  Moses  ! 

2.  The  apple  was  picked  by  him  ! 

3.  John  is  by  the  table  !  I 

Does  not  rock  denote  that  on  which  the  action  terminated  ? 

Does  not  apple  denote  that  which  was  acted  upon.     And 

is  not  that  which  is  acted  upon,  the  object  of  an  action  ?  And 


PREFACE.  Xlll 

is  not  John  as  near  to  the  table  as  the  table  is  to  John  ?  Is 
not  John,  then,  as  much  the  object  of  this  local  relation  as 
is  the  table  !  !  t 

Let  me  now  ask- 

Has  Mr.  Bullions  accomplished  the  object  which  induced 
him  to  come  forth  ?  Hear,  hear !  His  object  was  to  cor- 
rect what  is  erroneous,  to  retrench  what  is  superfluous,  to 
compress  what  is  prolix,  to  elucidate  what  is  obscure,  to 

DETERMINE  what  is  left  DOUBTFUL,  to  SUPPLY  what  is  DE- 
FECTIVE, in  Murray's  Grammar !  ! ! 

Alas !  Would  Mr.  Bullions  accomplish  his  object,  let  him 
compare  his  own  book  with  that  of  Mr.  Murray.  As  the 
foibles  of  one  man  become  virtues  when  compared  with  the 
crimes  of  another,  so  the  faults  in  Murray  will  become  per- 
fections when  compared  with  the  gross  obliquities  in  Bul- 
lions. 

Children  who  are  taken  from  Murray  to  Bullions,  will  find 
a  sorrow  rising  up  in  their  hearts,  deadening  their  primary 
hopes.  They  will  look  upon  this  other  Murray  as  did  the 
Jews  of  old  upon  the  second  temple — as  nothing  at  all  in 
comparison  with  tlie  first  I 

They  who  wish  to  learn  the  extent  of  Mr.  Bullions'  quali- 
fications to  mend  Mr.  Murray's  Grammar,  are  referred  to 
my  Appeal,  in  which  I  attempt  to  do  justice  to  Murray, 
and  to  his  unfeeling,  and  unskilful  patchers  ! 

Before  I  close  this  Preface,  I  deem  it  a  duty  to  notice  a 
work  compiled  by  Mr.  Goold  Brown,  a  teacher  in  the  city  of 
New  York.  As  I  have  discussed  the  merits  of  his  compilation 
in  my  Appeal,  I  shall  say  but  little  of  them  in  this  place. 
And  I  regret  that  what  little  I  do  .say  here,  must  be  against 
his  work.  I  feel  confident,  however,  that  all  who  give  a 
moment's  attention  to  the  concluding  paragraph  of  his  long 
preface,  will  come  to  the  conclusion  that  little  can  be  said 
in  favour  of  his  "finished  Labours  V  The  sentence  reads 
as  follows : 

"  Having  undertaken  and  prosecuted  this  work  with  a  hope  of 
facilitating  the  study  of  the  English  Language,  and  thus  promot- 
ing the  improvement  of  the  young,  the  author  now  presents  his 
finished  labours  to  the  candour  and  discernment  of  those  to  whom 
is  committed  the  important  business  of  instruction." 

The  author  says  that  he  presents  his  finished  labours  now 
B 


XIV  PREFACE. 

because  he  undertook,  and  prosecuted  this  work  with  a  hope 
of  facilitating  the  study  of  the  English  Language  ! !  Why- 
does  the  author  present  his  finished  labours  at  this  particular 
time  ?  Let  him  answer  the  question :  H  Because  I  undertook 
and  prosecuted  the  work  with  a.  hope  of  facilitating  the  study 
of  the  English  Language  ?" 

Had  not  the  author  "finished  his  labours,"  I  would  sug- 
gest the  following  amendment : 

Having  completed  the  tvork  which  the  author  undertook,  and  pro- 
secuted with  a  hope  of  facilitating  the  study  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage, he  now  presents  it  to  the  candour  and  discernment  of  those 
to  whom  is  committed  the  important  business  of  instruction. 

Although  I  cannot  give  my  .sanction  to  this  sentence  as  a 
paragon  of  grammatical  exellence,  I  freely  admit  that  it 
abounds  in  rare  things !  For  instance, — the  period  sepa- 
rates the  means,  or  instrument  from  the  process  in  which  it 
is  employed  : 

V  Having  undertaken,  and  prosecuted  this  work  with  a  hope  of 
facilitating  the  study  of  the  English  Language,  and  thus  promot- 
ing the  improvement  of  the  young." 

The  improvement  of  the  young  is  the  thing  which  the 
compiler  wishes  to  accomplish;  and  the  facilitating  the  study 
of  -he  English  language  is  the  mgans  by  which  he  is  to  ac- 
complish this  object.  Yet  in  the  arrangement  of  the  parts 
of  this  interesting  sentence,  the  means  is  mentioned  before 
the  object  in  whose  accomplishment  the  means  is  employed !  ! 
After  this  the  object  to  be  accomplished  by  the  means,  is 
most  beautifully  dragged  into  connection  with  the  means 
through  the  agency  of  the  adverb,  thus  !  Perhaps  the  ideas 
which  I  wish  to  express  will  be  better  understood  by  repeat- 
ing the  clause : 

"Having  undertaken,  and  prosecuted  this  work  with  a  hope  of 
facilitating  the  study  of  the  English  language,  and  tlius  promoting 
the  improvement  of  the  young." 

A  man  who  makes  no  pretensions  to  any  thing  extraordi- 
nary in  the  form  of  grammatical  knowledge,  would  probably 
arrange  the  parts  of  this  clause  as  follows  : 

Having  undertaken,  and  prosecuted  this  work  with  a  hope 
of  promoting  the  improvement  of  the  young  by  f:>cUit<tJivg 
the  study  of  the  English  language. 


rSF.FACE.  XT 

In  the  concluding  part  of  the  period,  the  compiler  speaks 
of  presenting  his  books  to  candour. 

'•  ine  author  now  presents  his  finished labours  to  the  candour  and 
discernment  of  those  to  whom  is  committed  the  important  business 
of  instruction." 

Is  it  possible  that  in  a  country  where  almost  every  man 
reads  almost  every  thing,  individuals  can  be  found,  who  speak 
of  presenting  books  to  candour!  I  !  !  I 

If  we  can  present  books  to  a  man's  candottr,  why  can  we 
not  present  them  to  his  honesty  ? 

Sir, — I  present  this  book  to  your  honesty  !  I 

Having  exposed  a  few  of  the  icarts,  corns,  and  cancers 
which  pervade  this  verbal  body,  by  taking  off  &  part  of  the 
full  Rhetorical  dress  in  which  this  queen  of  sentences  is  so 
tastefully  attired,  I  will  beg  the  pardon  of  her  learned  pa- 
rent for  raising  this  riot  in  her  royal  palace  !  And  to  do  all 
I  can  to  appease  him,  I  will  place  his  last-born  in  juxtaposi- 
tion with  my  last  innovations  upon  a  few  of  its  limbs : 

"  Having  undertaken  and  prosecuted  this  work  with  a  hope  of 
facilitating  the  study  of  the  English  language,  and  thus  promoting 
the  improvement  of  the  young,  the  author  now  presents  his  finished 
labours  to  the  candour,  and  discernment  of  those  to  whom  is  com- 
mitted the  important  business  of  instruction.'' — [46  words.] 

Having  completed  the  work  which  the  author  undertook  with  the 
hope  of  promoting  the  improvement  of  the  young  by  facilitating  the 
study  of  English  grammar,  he  now  presents  it  to  the  candid  and 
discerning  teacher. — [3G  words.] 

I  have  not  made  this  sentence  the  subject  of  comment  to 
expose  all  of  its  various  errors  in  grammar.  I  have  in- 
troduced it  to  show  a  want  of  logical  skill,  a  destitution  of 
sound  reason,  which  render  its  author  totally  incompetent, 
to  make  a  useful  book  on  any  subject. 

Under  another  page  of  the  preface,  he  says : 

"  Amidst  this  rage  for  speculation  on  a  subject  purely  practical, 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  overthrow  that  system  of  in- 
struction, which  long  use  has  rendered  venerable,  and  which  long 
experience  has  shown  to  be  useful." 

"  Such  attempts  have  generally  met  the  reception  they  de- 
served." "  Their  history  will  give  no  encouragement  to  future 
innovators." 

If  the  fate  of  present  innovators  on  false  theories,  has  a 
tendency  to  discourage  future  lovers  of  truth,  how  must  that 


XVI  PREFACE. 

of  the  present  compilers  of  these  theories,  dissuade  future 
aspirants  to  authorship,  from  extending  the  labour  of  their 
instruction  beyond  the  school  room  ! 

I  hope  that  my  innovation  upon  the  old  theory  of  English 
Grammar,  will  not  give  my  namesake  so  much  offence  that 
he  will  attempt  to  avenge  himself  by  producing  a  cessation 
in  the  public  patronage  of  my  labours.  Should  it  provoke 
him  to  take  such  a  course,  my  system  might  be  as  badly  off 
as  were  the  Grecian  ships  which,  by  a  calm  in  the  wind, 
ordered  by  the  miffed  Diana,  were  immovably  fixed  while 
bound  for  Troy  ! 

"  Amidst  this  rage  for  speculation  on  a  subject  purely  practical, 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  overthrow  that  system  of  in- 
struction, which  long  use  has  rendered  venerable,  and  which  long 
experience  has  shown  to  be  useful" 

Should  Mr.  Goold  Brown's  knowledge  of  English  Gram- 
mar, as  exhibited  in  this  sentence,  be  taken  as  the  standard 
by  which  to  judge  of  the  usefulness  of  the  old  "  system  of 
instruction/'  he  would  find  little  to  sustain  him  in  the  posi- 
tion which  he  here  takes. 

"Rage  for  speculation,"  is  neither  sense,  nor  English. 
Pope  says — 

u  The  rage  of  thirst,  the  rage  of  hunger,  the  rage  o/pain, 
the  rage  of  a,  fever." 

Cowley  says, — 

"  The  rage  of  a  tempest." 

Webster  says, — 

"  The  rage  for  money." 

That  is,  a  rage  to  procure  money. 

But  does  Mr.  Goold  Brown  intend  to  say  that  these  in- 
novators were  in  a  rage  to  procure  speculation  !  ?  What !  is 
speculation  an  article  of  traffic  that  it  may  be  purchased, 
and  sold  like  knives,  and  forks  ?  Where  is  speculation  to 
be  had — at  whose  store,  shop,  or  stand,  may  this  article  be 
procured !  ? 

The  word,  rage,  as  used  by  my  namesake,  is  intended  to 
show  the  quality  of  the  act  of  speculation.  This  learned 
compiler  meant  to  say  that  they  conducted  their  speculations 
with  extreme  eagerness.  This,  he  would  have  said,  had  he 
used  in  instead  of  for  : 

Amidst  this  rage  in  speculation. 


PREFACE.  XVll 

But,  in  place  of  in,  the  compiler  employs  for — hence  in- 
stead of  presenting  these  detestable  innovators  in  the  act  of 
speculation,  he  gives  them  a  strong  wish  to  procure  specula- 
tion ! ! 

1.  Amidst  this  rage/w  money.     (To  procure  money.) 

2.  Amidst  this  rage  far  speculation. 

3.  Amidst  this  rage  in  speculation. 

The  rage  felt  by  these  men,  was  carried  into  their  specu- 
lation— hence  the  rage  was  in  the  speculations. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  Mr.  Goold  Brown  has 
grown  gray  in  teaching  by  the  very  system  which  enables  him 
to  use  for  for  in  ! 

"  Amidst  this  rage  for  speculation  on  a  subject  purely 
practical." 

Practical  is  an  adjective  belonging  to  the  noun,  subject. 
That  Mr.  Goold  Brown  can  parse  this  word  as  well  as  Mr. 
James  Brown,  is  admitted  without  hesitation.  But,  that  a 
capacity  to  say  that  practical  is  an  adjective,  belonging  to  sub- 
ject, does  not  show  a  capacity  to  use  practical  with  propriety, 
is  obvious  from  the  erroneous  application  which  Mr.  Goold 
Brown  has  here  made  of  this  word.  A  subject,  as  such,  has 
not  the  property  which  is  denoted  by  the  word,  practical. 
Can  it  be  said  with  propriety,  this  subject  will  be  applied  to 
practice  ?  Has  any  one  ever  heard  the  expression, — the  sub- 
ject of  the  present  discussion,  has  been  applied  to  practice  I  ? 
When  a  thing  is  said  to  be  practical,  it  cannot  be  taken  in 
the  character  of  a  subject  of  discussion.  It  must  be  taken 
in  another  character,  and  by  another  name.  Thus  it  may 
be  predicated  of  knowledge,  as  such,  that  it  is  practical. 
But  because  knowledge,  as  knowledge,  may  be  said  to  be 
practical,  does  it  follow  that  knowledge,  as  a  subject  of  dis- 
cussion, can  be  said  to  be  practical  I  ? 

Was  it  not  for  subjecting  myself  to  the  charge  of  being 
pragmatical,  I  would  propose  to  this  Murray  mender,  who 
says  that  he  has  taken  the  liberty  to  think  for  himself,  the 
substitution  of  system  for  subject! 

Amidst  this  rage  in  speculation  on  a  system  purely  prac- 
tical. 

I  have  been  somewhat  amused  with  the  reason  which  Mr. 
Goold  Brown  says,  induced  him  to  write  an  English  Gram- 
mar.    He  gives  it  in  the  following  words : 


XVlll  HtEFACE. 

"  For  as  Lord  Bacon  observes :  *  The  number  of  ill-written  books 
is  not  to  be  diminished  by  ceasing  to  write,  but  by  writing  others 
■which,  like  Aaron's  serpent,  shall  swallow  up  the  spurious.'  " 

Now,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that,  from  the  count- 
less number  of  gross  errors  in  the  principles,  style,  and  me- 
thods of  Mr.  Goold  Brown's  book,  it  has  swallowed  down  all 
the  spurious  Grammars  which  preceded  it. 

It  is  said  by  many  that  the  serpent,  to  use  Lord  Bacon's 
appellation,  by  Dr.  Bullions,  is  an  offspring  from  the  Fi- 
nished Labours  of  Goold  Brown.  And,  although  the  man- 
ner of  this  derivation  may  be  enveloped  in  a  little  mystery, 
Mr.  G.  B.'s  serpent  does  seem  to  bear  a  parental  relation  to 
Dr.  Bullions'  !  If  Mr.  G.  B.'s  serpent  is  viviparous,  and 
the  source  of  Dr.  Bullions',  which  Mr.  G.  B.  himself  alleges, 
the  Doctor  is  not  so  culpable  as  the  numerous  gross  errors 
in  his  book  seem  to  indicate.  But  if  Mr.  G.  B.'s  serpent  is 
oviparous,  and  the  origin  of  Dr.  Bui-lions',  Mr.  G.  B.  should 
have  the  credit  of  laying  the  eggs,  and  Dr.  B.  the  praise  of 
hatching  them.  Be  this  as  it  may,  however,  I  frequently 
open  these  animals  in  the  progress  of  my  Appeal.  And,  if 
the  pupil  wishes  to  behold  their  frantic  throes,  to  see  the 
deadly  poison  which  they  have  in  their  horny  cells  for  him, 
and  to  witness  the  pus  of  error,  generated  in  the  ulcers  which 
these  two  Murray  menders  have  added  to  Murray's  sores, 
he  will  read  that  work  with  interest. 


NOTICE. 

Should  this  book  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  grammarian 
who  has  read  my  Appeal,  he  will  be  surprised  to  find  that 
I  here  use  the  very  technicals  which  I  there  condemn. 
And,  lest  the  use  of  Noun,  Pronoun,  Verb,  Preposition, 
Conjunction,  Adjective,  Adverb,  and  Interjection,  in  this  work, 
should  lead  him  to  think  me  fickle,  I  will  here  say  that  my 
present  opinion  of  these  technicals  is  identical  with  that 
given  of  them  in  the  Appeal. 

After  a  careful  examination  of  the  old  theory,  I  felt  sure 
that  teachers  would  be  glad  to  substitute  the  true  system  for 
it.  But  on  proposing  this  system  for  adoption,  I  found  them 
as  loath  to  leave  their  prison  house  of  error  as  was  the  old 
inmate  of  the  Bastile,  his  cell  of  darkness.  Hence,  although 
the  old  structure  is  utterly  demolished,  and  its  fragments 
strewed  from  the  commencement  to  the  end  of  my  Appeal, 
thousands  still  sing  pcans  in  honour  of  Murray!  But, 
while  I  regret  a  want  of  success  in  my  attempt  to  persuade 
the  world  to  allow  the  old  theory  of  English  Grammar  to 
decay,  and  drop  out  of  the  memory  of  men,  I  rejoice  in  the 
hope  that  I  may  yet  persuade  the  world  to  accept  of  a  sub- 
stitute which,  though  slightly  marred  by  the  use  of  noun, 
verb,  &c,  is  formed  upon  the  true  constructive  principles  of 
the  English  Language.* 

*  Of  the  three  books  -which  constitute  the  neir  system,  Book  II. 
only,  is  a  substitute  for  the  old  theory.  Book  L,  as  well  as  Book 
III.,  is  entirely  original. 


xix 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

[Gram-ma,  a  letter.] 


LESSON  I. 
GENERAL   VIEW   OP   THE   SUBJECT. 

A  LANGUAGE. 
A  Language  is  a  set  of  names,  words,  or  signs,  con- 
structed from  sounds,  and  letters. 

EP-E-OL-O-GY. 
Epeology  is  the  science  of  words,  the  science  of  speech. 
\Epea,  words,  and  logos,  doctrine,  science.] 
DIVISION    OP  EPEOLOGY. 

Epeology  is  divided  into  two  parts ;  namely, 

1.  Ep-e-di-col-o-gy,  and 

2.  GRAM-MAR.      - 

1.  Epedicology  is  that  part  of  Epeology,  which  respects 
the  meaning  of  words  in  their  isolated,  or  detached  state. 
[Ep-os,  a  word,  dei-ko,  to  show,  to  signify,  and  logos,  doc- 
trine.]    (Epedicology  is  taught  by  a  Dictionary?) 

2.  Grammar  is  that  part  of  Epeology,  which  respects 
the  characteristics,  and  functions  of  sounds,  and  letters  as  the 
elements  of  words,  and  the  characteristics,  forms,  positions, 
and  functions  of  words  and  monos,  as  the  elements  of  sen- 
tences. 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 
English  Grammar  is  that  part  of  English  Epeology, 
which  respects  the  characteristics,  and  functions  of  sounds, 
and  letters,  as  the  elements  of  English  words,  and  the  charac- 
teristics, forms,  positions,  and  functions,  of  words,  and  monos, 
as  the  elements  of  English  sentences. 


Z  PHONOLOGY. 

DIVISION   OF   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

English  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  grand  divisions, 
viz. : — 

1.  Orthography,     3.  Syntax,  and 

2.  Etymology,      4.  Prosody. 

questions. 

1 .  What  is  a  Language  ? 

2.  What  is  Ep-e-ol-o-gy  ? 

[Ep-e-ol-o-gy  is  made  from  ep-ca,  words,  and  logos,  doc- 
trine, and  means  the  whole  science  of  words,  speech,  lan- 
guage.] 

3.  Into  how  many  parts  is  ep-e-ol-o-gy  divided  ? 

4.  What  is  Grammar  ? 

5.  What  is  Ep-e-di-col-o-gy  9 

[Epedicology  is  made  from  ep-os,  a  word,  deiko  to  show, 
to  signify,  and  logos,  doctrine,  principle,  and  signifies  the 
part  of  epeology,  which  respects  the  meaning  of  words  as 
individuals.] 

6.  What  is  English  Grammar  ? 

7.  By  what  means  is  epedicology  taught  ? 

8.  Into  how  many  grand  parts  is  English  Grammar  divided? 


PART  I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

[Orthoe,  accurate,  correct,  and  grapho,  to  icrite.] 


LESSON  I. 
Orthography  is  the  first  grand  division  of  grammar, 
and  respects  the  characteristics,  and  functions  of  articulate 
Bounds,  and  literal  characters,  as  the  elements  of  words. 

SUBDIVISION    OF   ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography  is  naturally  subdivided  into, 

1.  Phonology,  and 

2.  Alphaohgy, 


PHONOLOGY.  S 

Part  I. — Phonology. 
[Pho-net  a  voice,  a  sound,  and  logos,  doctrine,  principle.] 
Phonology  is  the  first  part  of  orthography,  and  re* 
spects  the  characteristics,  and  functions  of  articulate  sounds, 
as  the  elements  of  vocal  words. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  part  of  Grammar  is  Orthography  9 

2.  What  does  orthography  respect  ? 

3.  What  are  the  elements  of  the  word,  orthography  9 

4.  What  is  the  meaniugof  orthos? 
6.  What  is  the  meaning  of  gripho 9 

6.  In  what  way  is  orthography  subdivided  ? 

7.  What  is  the  meaning  of  pho-ne9 

8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  logos  as  used  in  the  word,  phono- 
logy 9 

9.  What  is  Phonology  9 

10.  What  does  phonology  respect  ? 


LESSON  II. 
1.   Sound. 
A  sound  is  the  effect  of  an  impression,  made  on  the  organs 
of  hearing  by  a  vibration  of  air.     Or,  a  sound  is  a  noise. 
produced  by  a  vibration  of  air. 

2.    The  human  voice. 
The  human  voice  is  the  sound  which,  by  the  agency  of  a 
human  being,  is  derived  from  the  air  that  is  on  its  passage 
from  his  lungs. 

3.    The  formation  of  the  human  voice. 
The  human  voice  informed  by  agitating  the  air,  or  breath, 
on  its  passage  from  the  lungs  through  the  uind-pipe  of  the 
neck,  and  the  glottis  of  the  larynx. 

[The  larynx  is  the  upper  part  of  the  wind-pipe ;  and  the  small 
aperture  in  the  centre  of  the  top  part  of  the  wind-pipe,  is  called 
the  glottis."] 

4.    Articuhitc  sounds. 

Articulate  sounds  are  those  which  the  organs  of  articula- 
tion make  out  of  the  different  voices  that  aro  produced 
mainly,  if  not  entirety,  by  the  fjloiti*. 


4  PHONOLOGY. 

The  organs  of  articulation  are  the  instruments  with  which 
the  glottical  sounds  are  fitted  for  speech  by  a  modification, 
called  articulation.  These  organs  are  the  teeth,  throat,  lips, 
the  shell,  and  different  conformations  of  the  mouth,  the  nose, 
•palate,  and  the  tongue. 

[As  the  glottis  does  not  fit  sounds  for  speech,  it  is  not  an  organ 
of  articulation :  articulation  is  the  fitting  of  sounds  for  speech.  ] 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  sound? 

2.  What  is  the  human  voice  ? 

3.  How  is  the  human  voice  formed  ? 

4.  What  is  the  larynx  ? 

5.  In  what  part  of  the  larynx,  is  the  glottis  ? 

6.  What  is  the  glottis  ? 

7.  What  are  articulate  sounds  ? 

8.  Of  what  sounds  are  articulate  sounds  formed  ? 

9.  By  what  means  are  the  glottical  voices  formed  into  articu- 
late sounds  ? 

10.  The  organs  of  articulation,  are  what? 

11.  Why  is  not  the  glottis  an  organ  of  articulation  ? 

[Although  the  word,  articulation,  is  made  from  articulus,  a  joint, 
in  Phonology,  or  Grammar,  it  conveys  no  allusion  to  joints.  In 
Grammar,  articulation  signifies  the  act  of  fitting  sounds  for  speech. 
Hence  an  organ  which  does  not  directly  fit  sounds  for  speech,  is 
not  an  organ  of  articulation.  The  glottis  may  fit  sounds  for 
music;  but  not  for  speech.] 

12.  Will  you  give  me  the  name  of  each  organ  which  aids  in  fit- 
ting, or  rather  making,  sounds,  for  speech  ? 


LESSON  III. 
DIVISION   OP   ARTICULATE   SOUNDS. 

Articulate  sounds  (speech  sounds)  are  divided  into, 

1.  Vowels,  and 

2.  Consonants. 


PHONOLOGY. 


1.    VOWKL 


In  Phonology,  a  vowel  is  an  articulate  sound  which  is  a 
trunk  element  in  vocal  words. 


REMARKS. 

1.  As  a  trunk  can  stand  without  branches,  so  a  vowel  can  stand 
without  consonants. 

2.  And,  as  where  there  are  branches,  the  trunk  is  the  founda- 
tion, or  base,  in  the  entire  framework  of  the  tree,  so  where  there 
are  consonants,  the  vowel  becomes  the  foundation,  or  base,  of  the 
entire  framework  of  the  syllable,  or  word. 

3.  As,  without  a  trunk,  there  can  be  no  tree,  so  without  a  vowel, 
there  can  be  no  entire  word. 

4.  As  a  trunk  alone,  can  constitute  an  entiro  tree,  so  a  vowel 
alone,  can  form  an  entire  syllable,  or  word, 

5.  As  vowels,  and  consonants  are  the  elements  of  vocal  words, 
and,  as  these  elements  hold  different  framework  ranks  in  these 
words,  they  should  be  distinguished,  or  defined,  upon  the  basis  of 
their  respective  ranks. 

0.  The  question  should  not  be — what  is  this,  or  that,  sound  in 
respect  to  the  manner  in  -which  it  is  formed  by  the  speech  organs — 
but  it  should  be, — what  is  this,  or  that,  sound  in  respect  to  the 
particular  rank  which  it  holds  in  the  vocal  word  of  which  it  is  an 
element. 

Of  irliat  sounds,  and  hy  rchat  organs,  are  vowels  formed  ? 

The  air  with  which  the  lungs  are  supplied  by  the  windpipe,  is 
sent  out  from  the  lungs  through  the  glottis  of  the  larynx.  The 
expulsion  of  this  air  by  the  agency  of  the  diaphragm,  and  inter- 
costal muscles,  puts  it  into  an  agitated  btate  which  may  produce 
a  very  imperfect  sound  even  before  it  reaches  the  glottis.  But 
whether  this  pulmonary  air  is  mere  breath,  or  partial  sound,  when 
it  reaches  the  larynx,  on  arriving  at  this  part  of  the  windpipe, 
it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  glottis  itself,  which,  although 
its  greatest  diameter  is  but  one-tenth  part  of.  an  inch,  is  capable 
of  assuming  more  than  sixty  diameters.  Each  diameter  gives  the 
pulmonary  air,  or  partial  primary  sound  as  the  case  may  be,  a 
distinct  tone.  Hence  out  of  the  one  primary  current  of  air,  or 
imperfect  sound,  the  glottis  forms  many  voices.  But,  although 
the  glottis  produces  many  sounds  by  its  sixty  different  diameters, 
not  one  of  them  is  a  vowel.  These  ylottical  sounds  pass  from  their 
seat  of  formation  into  the  mouth ;  and,  on  their  passage  out  of  this 
place,  they  are  converted  into  vowels,  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  by 
the  different  conformations,  or  apertures  of  this  orgaa. 

1* 


PHONOLOGY. 


2.    CONSONANT. 

In  Phonology,  a  consonant  is  an  articulate  sound  which 
is  a  mere  branch  element  in  vocal  words. 

Of  what  sounds,  and  by  xohat  organs,  are  consonants 
formed  ? 

1.  As  the  vowels  are  made  out  of  the  glottical  sounds,  by  certain 
conformations  of  the  mouth,  so  the  consonants  are  made  out  of  the 
vowels  by  the  agency  of  the  teeth,  nose,  palate,  lips,  throat,  and  the 
tongue. 

2.  And,  as  every  vowel  partakes  more,  or  less  of  the  particular 
glottical  sound  out  of  which  it  is  formed,  so  each  consonant  par- 
takes to  a  greater,  or  less  degree,  of  the  particular  vowel  out  of 
which  it  is  formed. 

Classification  of  consonants. 
Consonants  are  divided  into  six  classes,  viz. : 

1.  Dental  consonants,  {Teeth?) 

2.  Guttural  consonants,  (  Throat.) 

3.  Labial  consonants,  (Lips.) 

4.  Palatal  consonants,  (Palate.) 

5.  Nasal  consonants,  (Nose,)  and, 

6.  Lingual  consonants,  (Tongue.) 

When  a  consonant  is  made  principally  with  the  teeth,  it 
is  called  a  dental.  But  when  it  is  made  principally  with 
the  throat,  it  is  called  a  throatal,  or  a  guttural. 

5.    SYLLABLE. 

In  Phonology,  a  syllable  is  any  quantity  of  articulate 
sound,  which  can  be  taken  alone. 

1.  As  every  tree  must  have  a  trunk,  so  every  word  must  have  a 
voivel. 

2.  As  branches  cannot  constitute  a  tree,  so  consonants  cannot  con- 
stitute a  word. 

3.  As  the  branches  adhere  to  the  trunk,  or  to  one  another,  so 
consonants  adhere  to  the  voivel,  or  to  one  another. 


6.    VOCAL  WORDS. 

A  vocal  word  is  articulate  sound,  comprising  one,  or  more 


PHONOLOGY. 


syllables,  employed  by  common  consent  as  the  name,  the 
sign,  of  an  idea. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Into  what  are  articulate  sounds  divided? 

2.  What  is  a  vowel ! 

3.  Can  a  trunk  stand  without  a  branch  ? 

4.  Can  a  voted  exist  without  a  consonant  ? 

5.  Can  you  have  a  vowel  in  a  word,  or  syllable,  without  a  con- 
sonant ? 

G.  What  becomes  the  foundation,  ©r  base  of  the  word,  where 
there  are  consonants? 

7.  Can  a  trunk  without  branches  form  a  complete  tree  ? 

8.  Can  a  vowel  without  consonants  form  a  complete  syllable,  or 
word? 

9.  Why  should  a  vowel  be  defined  in  respect  to  its  rank  in  the 
word  of  which  it  is  an  element  ? 

10.  Out  of  what  sounds  are  vowels  formed  ? 

11.  By  what  organs  are  the  vowels  formed? 

12.  What  puts  the  air  which  is  ejected  from  the  lungs,  into  an 
agitated  state  ? 

13.  How  many  diameters  has  the  glottis? 

14.  Is  perfect  sound  produced  before  the  air  arrives  at  the 
glottis  ? 

19t  What  is  a  consonant  ? 

10.  Why  is  the  syllabane,  in  phonology,  used  ? 

[Because,  in  Alphaology,  a  letter  also  is  a  consonant.] 

17.  Out  of  what  sounds,  and  by  what  organs,  are  consonants 
formed  ? 

1 8.  Does  each  vowel  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  glottical  sound 
out  of  which  it  is  formed? 

19.  Does  each  consonant  partake  of  the  vowel  out  of  which  it 
is  made. 

20.  Into  how  many  classes  are  consonants  divided  ? 

21.  In  this  classification,  are  the  consonants  named  in  referenc 
to  the  organs  by  which  they  are  principally  formed  ? 

22.  When  a  consonant  is  made  principally  by  the  palate,  what 
is  it  called  ? 

23.  What  is  a  syllable  ? 

24.  What  is  the  foundation  sound  of  a  syllable  called  ? 

25.  What  is  a  vocal  word  ? 


8  PHONOLOGY. 

LESSON  IV. 
1.    The  Sounds  of  Speech. 

The  sounds  of  speech,  are  the  various  voices,  or  element- 
ary noises  which  are  heard  in  speaking  words.  • 

The  voeai  word,  bat,  is  made  up  of  three  elementary 
voices,  or  noises;  and  these  elementary  noises  are  the  sounds 
of  this  vocal  word. 

The  printed  word,  bat,  is  made  up  of  three  alphabetical 
characters,  or  marks ;  and  these  marks  are  the  letters  of 
this  printed  word. 

[Here  is  the  printed  word — Bat.'] 

1.  The  first  elementary  mark  in  this  printed  word,  is  b. 

2.  The  second  elementary  mark  in  this  printed  word, 
is  a. 

3.  The  third  elementary  mark  in  this  printed  word,  is  t. 

[The  word,  elements,  means  tiie  parts  which  make  up  a  whole 
thing.  Thus  the  threads  iu  cloth,  are  the  elements,  or  the  ele- 
mentary parts  of  the  clcth.] 

Having  shown  you  the  elementary  parts  of  the  printed 
word,  bat,  I  will  now  undertake  to  show  you  the  elementary 
parts  of  the  vocal  word,  bat.  [  Vocalj  voice,  noise,  spoken f 
not  written,  not  formed  of  letters.] 

The  spoken  word,  bat,  is  made  up  of  three  elementary 
voices,  or  noises;  and  these  elementary  noises  are  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  of  this  vocal  word.     What  word  ?  [bat.] 

1.  Theirs*  voice,  or  noise  in  the  vocal  word,  bat,  is  the 
elementary  sound  wkieh  is  heard  in  the  mere  beginning  of 
this  voice  word.  [That  sound  which  is  heard  before  the 
lips  are  separated.'] 

[The  child  should  be  drilled  on  this  sound.] 

2.  The  second  sound  in  the  vocal  word,  bat,  is  that  voice, 
or  noise,  which  is  heard  in  the  mere  beginning  of  the  vocal 
word,  axe. 

[Here  explain  the  sound,  and  drill  the  child  upon  it.] 

3.  The  third  sound  in  the  vocal  word,  Ixtt,  is  the  voice, 
or  noise,  which  merely  begins  the  voccd  word,  top. 

[Here  illustrate,  and  drill.} 


PHONOLOGY. 


THE  PHONESCOPE. 


[Pho-ne,  a  voice,  and  sko-pe-o,  to  view.] 
The  phonescope  is  a  diagram  which  exhibits  the  thirty- 
eight  elementary  sounds  that  are  the  elements  of  English 
vocal  words,  by  the  means  of  thirty-eight  speech  souiulers. 
[See  page  10.] 


Sjxech  Sounder. 

A  speech  sounder  is  an  object,  the  first  part  of  whose 
vocal  name,  is  one  of  the  elementary  sounds  of  English 
vocal  words.  Hence,  the  utterance  of  the  mere  beginning 
of  the  name  of  each  speech  sounder  in  the  Phonescope,  will 
give  the  thirty-eight  elementary  sounds  in  vocal  words. 

The  names  of  the  thirty-eight  speech  sounders  which  form 
the  Phonescope. 


Acorn. 

Arm. 

Awl. 

Axe. 

Bat. 

Cap. 

Circle. 

Dog. 

Elephant. 

Emew. 

Fork. 

Gi-raff. 

Gun. 

Hat. 

Indian. 

Eye. 

Key. 

Jug. 

Lion. 

Mortar. 

Net. 

O-celot. 

Ox. 

Tomb. 

Organ. 

Pen. 

Quail. 

Rabbit. 

Stove. 

Top. 

Ewe.  [u] 

Urn. 

Puss. 

Vane. 

Wagon. 

Fox. 

Yoke. 

Zebra. 

THE    SYNPHONESCOPE. 
[5yn,  together,  phone,  a  sound,  and  skopcOy  to  view.  ] 
The  synphonescope  is  the  junction  of  two,  or  more  of  the 
speech  sounders  in  the  formation  of  a  vocal  syllable. 


THE   PHOMESCOPE 


I'liUNOlAMjV. 


VOC.iL   SYLLABLES. 


11 


a!  syllable  is  any  quantity  of  articulate  sound,  which 
iken  alone. 

Division  of  Vocal  Syllables. 
syllables  are  divided  into, 

1.  MonotJiongs,  and 

2.  Diphthongs. 

vocal  naonothong  is  a  vocal  syllable  which  comprises 

vowel  sound. 

vocal  diphthong  is  a  vocal  syllable  which  comprises 

I  sounds  that  are  so  thoroughly  mixed  one  with  the 

t  the  two  may  be  taken  as  one. 

'tree  vowel  sounds  never  so  thoroughly  mix,  that 

i  can  be  taien  as  one%  there  is  no  triphthong  in  the 


VOCAL   WORDS. 


A  vocal  word  is  articulate  sound,  employed  by  common 
consent  as  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

Division  of  Vocal  Words, 

In  reference  to  the  number  of  vocal  syllables  which  they  r&> 

spectivety  contain. 

Vocal  words  are  divided  into, 

1.  Mon ©syllables,  [Mon-os,  one.  J 
%  /^syllables,  [Dis,  two.] 
3.    ZV/syllaMcs,  [Trcs,  three.] 
4  /^syllables,  [Poly,  many.] 

1.  A  vocal  word  which  has  but  one  syllable,  is  a  mono- 
syllabi*'. 

2.  A  vocal  word  which  has  but  two  syllables,  is  a  dissyl- 
laWe. 

3.  A  vocal  word  which  has  but  three  syllables,  is  a  tri- 
syllable. 

■1.  A  vocal  word  which  has  four,  or  more  syllables,  is  a 
polysyllabic. 


12  PHONOLOGY. 

PART  II. 

ALPHAOLOGY. 

[Alpha,  a  letter,  and  logos,  doctrine,  principle.] 


LESSON  I. 

Alphaology  is  the  second  part  of  Orthography,  and  re- 
spects the  characteristics,  &nd  functions  of  letters  as  the  ele- 
ments of  literal  words 

1.  Letters. 

Letters  are  the  elementary  parts  of  literal  words,  and,  in 
general,  the  representatives  of  the  articulate  sounds  in  vocal 
ones. 

2.  A  pair  of  Letters. 

A  pair  of  letters  is  a  couple  of  letters  which,  though  they 
generally  differ  in  form,  and  always  in  size,  bear  the  same 
name,  and  represent  the  same  sounds;  as,  A  a,  Bb,  S  s. 

3.  A  set  of  Letters. 

A  set  of  letters  is  that  number  of  pairs,  which  belongs  to 
a  particular  language. 

4.  An  Alphabet. 

An  alphabet  is  an  entire  set  of  letters. 

The  English  alphabet  has  twenty-six  letters  only. 

5.    Capital  Letters. 

A  capital  letter  is  the  larger  one  of  the  pair,  and  is  em- 
ployed for  prominence  in  appearance,  eminence  in  the  sub- 
ject, importance  in  the  idea ;  or  for  mere  distinction  between 
an  individual,  and  a  class  name. 

6.  Small  Letters. 

A  small  letter  is  the  smaller  letter  of  the  pair,  and  is  used 
in  the  body  of  the  matter. 

7.  Italic  Letters. 

Italic  letters  are  those  which  have  an  oblique,  or  winding 


ALPHAOLOGY. 


13 


form,  and  are  used  to  denote  emphasis,  importance,  antithe- 
sis, &c. 

[They  are  called  Italic  in  reference  to  Italy,  the  country  that 
first  used  them.] 

8.  Roman  Letters. 

Roman  letters  are  those  tin-antique  letters  which  have  an 
upright  form. 

[They  are  denominated  Roman,  because  they  were  first  used  in 
Rome.] 

9.    Old  English  Letters. 

Old  English  Letters  are  those  that  have  an  antique  com- 
plex form,  and  which  were  primarily  used  in  the  English 
language. 

ALPHASCOPE. 


Roman. 


Italic. 


Cap. 

A 

B 

C 

D 

£ 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

O 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U 

V 

W 

X 

Y 

Z 


Small 

Cap. 

a 

A 

b 

B 

c 

0 

d 

D 

e 

E 

f 

F 

g 

a 

h 

n 

i 

i 

J 

j 

k 

K 

1 

L 

m 

M 

n 

N 

0 

0 

P 

P 

q 

Q 

r 

R 

s 

S 

t 

T 

u 

U 

V 

V 

w 

w 

X 

X 

y 

Y 

z 

z 

Old  English. 

mall. 

Cap. 

SmalL 

a 

& 

a 

b 

3 

1 

c 

on 

c 

d 

30 

i 

e 

H 

e 

f 

Sf 

I 

9 

& 

0 

h 

m 

( 

i 
i 

& 

3 

< 

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14  ALPIIAOLOGY. 

Letters  are  also  divided  into, 

1.  Printed  letters :  Y  y,  S  s,  R  r. 

2.  Written  letters:    ^/ y,  £? <i,  0&  v. 

Letters  are  further  divided  into, 

1.  Plain,     and 

2.  Ornamental. 

1 .  A  plain  letter  is  one  which  is  perfectly  simple  in  its 
structure ;  as,  A  a,  S  s,  V  v. 

2.  An  ornamental  letter  is  one  which  has  something  that 
serves  as  a  mere  ornament;  as,  A  "y  s&. 


Typographical  Divisions  of  Letters. 

1 .  Diamond  letters :  a  ■,  b  b,  c  <,. 

2.  Pearl  letters :  w  w,  y  >-,  h  h. 

3.  Agate :  h  b,  e  e,  m  m. 

4.  Nonpareil :  a  a,  B  b,  c  o. 

5.  Minion:  A  a,  B  b,  C  c. 

6.  Brevier:  A  a,  B  b,  C  c. 

7.  Bourgeoise :  A  a,  W  w,  M  m. 

8.  Zo/i</  Primer:  A  a,  W  w,  M  m. 

9.  Small  Pica:  A  a,  W  W,  M  m. 

10.  Pica :  A  a?  B  b,  C  c. 

11.  English:  A  a,   B  b,   C  C. 

12.  Nonpareil  Gothic:  A  B  C  D. 

13.  Nonpareil  Antique:  WMBK. 

14.  Minion  hair  line:  A  a,  B  b,  W  -w. 

15.  Brevier  Black,  or  OZd  English :  ©$  to,  fll  a. 

16.  Bourgeoise  condensed :  W  K  M  H. 

17.  -Zyow#  Primer  Grecian:  A  B  u  11. 

18.  Brevier  Tuscan,  open:  A  IB  IK  Wa 

There  are  many  other  typographical  classifications  of  let- 
ters. 


ALPHAOLOGY.  15 


LESSON  II. 

Division  of  Letters  upon  the  basis  of  tlie  character  of  the 
sounds  which  they  represent. 

Letters  are  divided  into, 

1.  Letter  vowels,     and 

2.  Lettei'  consonants. 

A  letter  vowel  is  a  character  which  represents  a  vowel 
sound,  a  trunk  element  in  vocal  words. 

2.  Letter  Consonant. 

A  h'tter  consonant  is  a  character  which  represents  a  conso- 
nant sound,  a  branch  element  in  vocal  words. 

[A  consonant  sound  is  one  which  cannot  be  perfectly  formed 
except  it  is  made  upon  some  vowel  sound  as  its  base.] 

The  letter  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o}  u — w,  y. 
The  letter  consonmits  are  b,  c,  d}  f  yy  h,j,  Jc,  l}  m^^p,  qf 
r,  *,  t,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 

W}  and  Y. 

When  w,  and  y  precede  another  vowel  in  the  same  sylla- 
ble, they  are  consonants ;  as,  wind,  wife — you,  year.  In 
other  places  these  letters  are  vowels. 


QUE8TIONS. 

1.  What  is  alphaology? 

2.  What  does  alphaology  respect  ? 

3.  What  are  the  elements  of  the  word,  alphaology? 

4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  alpha? 

5.  What  is  the  meaning  of  logos  in  this  case  ? 

6.  What  are  letters  ? 

7.  Are  letters  the  representatives  of  sounds  in  all  cases  ? 

[Where  the  letter  is  silent,  it  is  not  the  representative  of  articu- 
late sound  ;  as,  h,  in  Aour,  rhetoric] 

[The  letter  which  is  employed  to  change  the  sound  of  another 
letter,  is  not  the  representative  of  a  sound  ;  as,  pine,  c — face,  e.~] 

8.  What  is  a  pair  of  letters  ? 


16  ALPHAOLOGY. 

[A  pair  comprises  "but  two  of  any  thing.] 

9.  What  is  a  set  of  letters  ? 

[A  set  implies  a  number  of  things  which  are  used  together.     A 
set  comprises  more  than  two.] 

10.  What  is  an  alphabet  ? 

11.  What  is  Siset? 

[The  things  which  can  be  used  together.] 

12.  How  many  letters  has  the  English  alphabet? 

13.  How  many  elementary  sounds  has  the  English  language  ? 

14.  What  are  capital  letters  ? 

15.  What  are  small  letters? 

16.  What  are  Italic  letters  ? 

17.  What  are  Roman  letters  ? 

18.  What  are  Old  English  letters? 

19.  What  are  the  names  of  the  respective  letters  in  the  English 
alphabet  ? 

20.  How  are  letters  divided  in  respect  to  the  character  of  the 
sounds  which  they  represent  ? 

21.  What  is  a  letter  vowel? 

22.  What  is  a  letter  consonant  ? 

23.  What  is  the  name  of  that  sound  which  cannot  be  perfectly 
made  except  it  is  formed  on  a  vowel  sound  as  its  base  ? 

24.  Which  are  the  letter  vowels  ? 

25.  Which  are  the  letter  consonants  ? 

26.  Are  w,  and  y  letter  vowels  ? 

27.  Are  w,  and  y  letter  consonants  ? 

28.  Where  are  w,  and  y  vowels,  and  where  consonants  f 

29.  What  are  s,  t,  m,  a,  o,  and  e  ? 


LESSON  III. 
Subdivision  of  the  Letter  Consonants. 

Letter  consonants  are  divided  into, 

1.  Letter  Mutes,     and 

2.  Letter  Semivowels. 

1.  A  letter  mute  is  a  letter  consonant  which  represents  a 
consonant  sound  that  cannot  possibly  be  made  without  a 
vowel  sound ;  as,  b* 

*  Care  will  enable  one  to  see  that  the  sound  which  b  represents,  cannot  be  made 
■without  making  considerable  of  the  vcnoel  sound  which  c  represents. 


AUMIAOLOGY.  17 

2.  A  letter  semivowel  is  a  letter  consonant  which  repre- 
sents a  small  degree  of  vowel  sound ;  as,  v.* 

The  letter  mutes  are  b,  d,  k,  p,  q,  t,  and  c  and  g  hard. 

The  letter  semivowels  are  /,  h,  j,  l}  m,  nt  r,  s}  v,  x,  z,  and 
c  and  g  soft. 

Subdivision  of  the  Letter  Semivowels  into, 

1.  Letter  liquids,  and 

2.  Letter  solids. 

1.  A  letter  liquid  is  a  fetter  semivowel  which  represents  a 
sound  that  readily  unites  with  the  sounds  represented  by 
other  letter  semivowels ;  as,  I,  m,  n,  r. 

2.  A  letter  solid  is  a  letter  semivowel  which  represents  a 
sound  that  does  not  readily  unite  with  the  sounds  represented 
by  other  letter  semivowels ;  but,  like  a  solid,  it  remains  un- 
mixed, or,  by  itself  j  as,  /,  h,  j,  s,  v,  x,  z. 

The  letter  liquids  are  I,  m,  n,  r. 

The  letter  solids  are  /,  h,  j,  s,  v,  x,  z,  and  c  and  g  soft. 

Subdivision  of  the  Letter  Consonants 

Upon  the  basis  of  the  principal  organs  employed  in  forming 
the  consonant  sounds  which  the  letter  consonants  repre- 
sent, into, 

1.  Palatals, 

2.  Labials, 

3.  Dentals, 

4.  Gutturals, 

5.  Nasals,     and 

6.  Linguals. 

1.  Letter  Palatals. 

A  letter  palatal  is  a  letter  consonant  which  represents  a 
consonant  sound  that  is  formed  mainly  by  the  palate. 
The  letter  palatals  are,  y,  and  soft  g. 

2.  Letter  Labials. 

A  letter  labial  is  a  letter  consonant  which  represents  a 

*  Cfose  attention  will  enable  one  to  see  that  the  sound  which  v  represent*,  has  a 
little  vowel  sound. 

2* 


18  ALPHAOLOGY. 

consonant  sound  that  is  made  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  by  the 
lips. 

The  letter  labials  are  b,  p,  f,  v. 

3.  Letter  Dentals. 
A  letter  dental  is  a  letter  consonant  which  represents  a 
consonant  sound  that  is  formed  mainly  by  the  teeth. 
The  letter  dentals  are  d,  s}  t,  z. 

4.  Letter  Gutturals. 
A  letter  guttural  is  a  letter  consonant  which  represents  a 
consonant  sound  that  is  principally  made  by  the  throat. 
The  letter  gutturals  are  k}  q,  c,  and  g  hard. 

5.  Letter  Nasals. 
A  letter  nasal. is  a  letter  consonant  which  represents  a  con- 
sonant sound  that  is  made  mainly  by  the  aid  of  the  nose. 
The  letter  nasals  are  m,  and  n. 

6.  Letter  Linguals. 
A  letter  lingual  is  a  letter  consonant  which  represents  a 
consonant  sound  that  is  made  mainly  by  the  aid  of  the  tongue. 
The  letter  linguals  are  I,  and  r. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Into  what  two  classes  are  letter  consonants  subdivided? 

2.  "What  is  a  letter  mute  ? 

3.  What  is  a  letter  semivowel  ? 

4.  What  is  a  letter  liquid  ? 
6.  What  is  a  letter  solid? 

6.  What  four  letter  semivowels  are  liquids  ? 

7.  Why  are  these  letters  called  liquids  f 

8.  What  is  a  letter  palatal  ? 

9.  What  letter  consonants  are  palatals  ? 

10.  What  is  a  letter  labial? 

11.  Which  letter  consonants  are  labials? 

12.  What  is  a  letter  dental  ? 

13.  Which  letter  consonants  are  dentals  ? 

14.  What  is  a  letter  guttural  ? 

15.  Which  letter  consonants  are  gutturals? 

16.  What  is  a  letter  nasal? 

17.  Which  letter  consonants  are  nasals  ? 

18.  What  is  a  letter  lingual  ? 

19.  Which  letter  consonants  are  Unguals  ? 


ALniAOLOGY.  19 

LESSON  IV. 

THE    SOUNDS    OF    LETTERS. 

Observations. — It  may  be  proper  to  remark  that  the  sounds 
of  the  letters  vary,  as  they  are  differently  associated,  and  that  the 
pronunciation  of  these  associations  depends  upon  the  position  of 
the  accent.  It  may  also  be  observed  here,  that,  to  pronounce 
accurately,  great  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  vowels  -which  are 
not  accented.  "  There  is  scarcely  any  thing  which  more  distin- 
guishes a  person  of  a  poor  education,  from  a  person  of  a  good  one, 
than  the  pronunciation  of  the  unaccented  vowels.  When  vowels  are 
under  the  accent,  the  best  speakers,  and  the  lowest  of  the  people, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  pronounce  them  in  the  same  manner ; 
but  the  unaccented  vowels  in  the  mouths  of  the  former,  have  a  dis- 
tinct, open,  specific  sound,  while  the  latter  often  totally  sink  them, 
or  change  them  into  some  other  sound." 

SOUNDS    OF   THE    SIMPLE   LETTERS. 

The  sounds  of  letters  are  the  thirty-eight  elementary 
voices  of  which  vocal  words  are  formed. 

1.  A. 

1.  A  represents  the  long  smooth  vowel  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  part  of  u-corn. 

As  the  same  idea  may  be  expressed  by  several  different  words,  so  the  some 
sound  may  be  represented  by  several  different  letters.  The  long  smooth  vowel 
sound  which  is  represented  by  a,  is  not  unfrequcntly  represented  by  several  other 
letters. 

In  Aaron,  this  sound  is  represented  by  aa ;  in  safl,  it  is  represented  by  ai;  in 
gaol,  by  ao ;  in  gauge,  by  au ;  in  day,  by  ay ;  in  steak,  by  ea ;  in  e'er,  by  e'e ;  in 
veil,  by  et ;  in  prey,  by  ey  ;  and,  in  acorn,  by  a. 

This  variety  in  the  representative  of  the  same  sound,  renders  spelling  very 
difficult.  Difficult,  however,  as  it  is  to  spell  with  accuracy,  no  grammarian  lias 
even  attempted  to  render  the  child  much  aid.  Why  this  branch  of  Grammar  has 
been  so  long  neglected,  1  do  not  know.  Nor  am  I  sure  that  any  thing  which  I 
can  do,  will  be  of  much  service  to  the  pupil.  Still  I  shall  give  a  few  rules,  and 
make  a  few  remarks  in  the  next  edition  of  this  work,  which  I  hope  the  pupil  will 
find  beneficial.  i 

2.  A  represents  the  long  rough  vowel  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  mere  beginning  of  arm. 

3.  A  represents  the  long  bass  vowel  sound  which  is 
heard  in  owl. 

4.  A  represents  the  short  sharp  vowel  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  syllable  of  axe,  addition. 

5.  A  represents  the  vowel  sound  of  short  u,  which  is 
heard  in  the  second  syllable  of  woman,  mustard,  offal. 

6.  A  represents  the  vowel  sound  of  short  broad  o,  which 
is  heard  in  what. 


20  ALrllAOLOGY. 

7.  A  represents  the  vowel  sound  of  short  e,  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  syllable  of  many. 

8.  In  general,  unaccented  a,  in  the  termination,  age,  in 
words  of  two  syllables,  represents  the  vowel  sound  of  short 
i,  as  in  cabbage,  village,  couraye.   [Cabbige,  vWh'ge,  course.] 

2.  B. 

1.  B  represents  the  labial  consonant  sound  which  is  heard 
in  the  mere  beginning  of  oat. 

[B  after  m,  and  before  t,  in  the  same  syllable,  is  silent ; 
as,  lamo,  de&t.  In  subtile,  meaning  fine,  b  is  not  silent,  but 
in  subtle,  cunning,  b  is  silent.] 

3.C 

1.  C  before  a,  I,  o,  r,  t,  and  u,  represents  the  hard  con- 
sonant k  sound  which  is  heard  in  can,  clad,  cordiction,  curb, 
fact. 

2.  When  c  closes  a  syllable,  it  represents  the  hard  h  sound 
which  is  heard  in  ac-cession,  ac-quired,  ac-eented,  jtfac-cid. 

3.  C  before  e,i,  and  y,  represents  the  soft  hissing  conso- 
nant s  sound  which  is  heard  in  ce,  ci,  cy.     [se,  si,  sy.~\ 

4.  In  discern,  suffice,  sacrifice,  &c,  c  represents  the  z  sound. 

5.  When  the  accent  is  on  the  preceding  syllable,  c,  before 
ea,  eou,  ia,  ie,  and  io,  represents  the  consonant  sound  of  sh, 
which  is  heard  in  ocean,  cetaceous,  special,  efficient,  gracious. 

6.  In  Czar,  victuals,  corpuscle,  muscle,  indictf,  czarina,  in- 
dictment, c  is  perfectly  silent. 

[The  sounds  of  ch  are  given  under  page  45. 3 

4.  D. 

1.  D  represents  the  obtuse  dental  consonant  sound  which 
is  heard  in  the  mere  beginning  of  efog. 

2.  When  ed  follows  a  sharp  consonant  sound,  the  e  is  sup- 
pressed, and  d  represents  the  sound  of  t,  as  in  facea7,  lacea7, 
raceo7,  stuffea7,  trippea7,  nippea7,  passca7. 

3.  When  the  accent  is  on  the  preceding  syllable,  d  gen- 
erally sounds  like  g  before  eou,  ia,  ie,  and  io,  as  in  hideous, 
tedious,  soldier,  Indian.     [SoL/ier,  Indian,  &c] 

4.  In  some  words  d  before  u,  represents  the  sound  of  j: 
eo?«cation,  verc/urc,  arduous. 


ALPHAOLOUY.  21 

5.  E. 

1.  E  represents  the  long  open  vowel  sound  which  is  heard 
in  the  first  part  of  c-mew. 

2.  E  represents  the  short  vowel  sound  which  is  heard  in 
the  mere  beginning  of  elephant.  - 

3.  ^represents  the  obscure  vowel  sound  which  is  heard 
in  open,  able,  garden. 

4.  E  final,  unless  it  has  its  long  open  vowel  sound,  is 
silent,  as  in  rage,  stage,  age,  ore,  pore,  eve,  ice,  mice. 

[In  me,  the,  he,  be,  she,  and  we,  the  final  e  represents  the 
long  open  vowel  sound  which  is  heard  in  e-mew.] 

5.  In  the  terminations,  ere,  gre,  and  tre,  the  final  e  repre- 
sents the  short  vowel  sound  of  u,  as  in  acre,  meagre,  centre, 
&c.     [acwr,  meagwr,  centwr.] 

6.  In  Greek,  as  well  as  in  Latin,  words,  the  final  e  re- 
presents its  long  vowel  sound,  as  in  Pe-nel-o-pe,  simi-le,  epit- 
o-me. 

7.  The  final  silent  e  renders  the  preceding  vowel  sound 
long,  as  in  fame,  cane,  pole,  pine.  [Without  the  final  e — 
/am,  can,  pol,  pin.] 

[Ea  is  treated  of  under  page  44.] 

6.  F. 

1.  F,  except  in  of  where/  sounds  like  v,  represents  the 
consonant  labial  sound  which  is  heard  in  the  first  part  of /or, 
/an,  and  in  the  last  part  of  staff,  off. 

7.  a. 

1.  G,  before  a,  I,  o,  r,  and  u,  represents  the  hard  guttural 
consonant  sound  which  is  heard  in  the  first  part  of  garble, 
</arb,  <7ame,  </lad,  #love,  goblet,  </rave,  OTade,  orand,  autter, 
gunner,  onard. 

2.  G,  before  e,  i,  and  y,  represents  the  soft  palatal  conso- 
nant sound  which  is  heard  in  gentle,  gem,  gin,  ginger,  giraff, 
emgy,  o-ynarchy,  o^innick,  gyro. 

3.  G,  in  get,  give,  gewgaw,  gizzard,  gittern,  girth,  gig, 
gide,  giddy,  &c,  represents  the  hard  guttural  consonant 
sound  which  is  heard  in  gunner,  go. 

4.  When  g  terminates  a  syllable  it  represents  the  hard 
guttural  sound,  as  in  \og,  fqa,  tuy,  \ng,  fog-gy. 


22  ALPIIAOLOGY. 

5.  In  all  additional  syllables,  g  represents  the  hard  sound, 
as  in  fog-fly,  hog-gy,  hog-gler. 

6.  G  retains  its  hard  sound  before  e,  i,  and  y  in  nearly 
all  individual  names,  as  in  Crethsemane,  6rilboa,  Gilbert. 

(Exceptions: — George,  Geoffry,  E^ypt.) 

7.  In  the  following  class  names,  y  has  its  hard  sound : 
Anger,  finder,  ^eese,  give,  gift,  girdle,  </izzard,  &c. 

8.  When  two  gcj  come  together,  both  have  the  hard  sound, 
as  in  swagger,  hragger,  stagger,  bracing. 

(Exceptions : — Exaggerate,  exaggeration.) 

9.  G,  before  m,  and  n  is  silent,  as  in  phlegm,  apothegm, 
gnaw,  resign,  gnome,  gneiss, gnat,  gnomon.  [When g  is  silent, 
it  generally  renders  the  preceding  vowel  sound  long.] 

8.  H. 

1.  H  represents  the  aspirate  consonant  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  part  of  hat,  here,  hot. 

2.  In  heir,  herb,  honest,  honour,  hospital,  hostler,  hour, 
humble,  humour,  h  is  perfectly  silent. 

3.  H,  final,  is  silent  after  a  vowel  letter;  as  ah,  oh,  Sarah, 
Nineve/L 

4.  After  r,  h  is  silent  y  as,  rheum,  rhetoric. 

9.  I. 

1.  /represents  the  long  vowel  sound  which  is  heard  in 
pine,  i-hex,  pint,  and  fight. 

2.  I  has  its  long  vowel  sound  in  monosyllables  which  end 
in  e,  as  in  pine,  fine. 

3.  I,  under  the  accent  before  another  vowel  letter,  with 
which  it  does  not  coalesce,  has  its  long  vowel  sound,  as  in 
pi-ous. 

4.  /,  at  the  end  of  Latin  words,  has  its  long  vowel  sound, 
as  in  literati,  magi,  genii. 

5.  /represents  the  short  vowel  sound  which  is  heard  in 
pin,  in,  and  Jin. 

6.  In  general,  i  has  its  short  vowel  sound  in  mono- 
syllables which  have  not  a  final  e,  as  pin,  Jin. 

7.  In  words  of  two,  or  more  syllables,  %  is  not  generally 
rendered  long  by  the  final  e,  as  doctrine,  masculme,  feminine, 
discipline,  projectile.  [Doctrin,  masculin,  feminm,  disci- 
plin,  project/ 1  ] 


ALPIIAOLOGY.  23 

8.  When  i  in  words  of  two,  or  more  syllables,  is  followed 
by  a  consonant  letter  of  the  same  syllable,  it  generally  has 
its  short  vowel  sound,  as  in  fiddler,  piV/dler,  piVfgeon,  Pi/idar, 
and  picture. 

9.  When  i  is  the  only,  or  the  last,  vowel  letter  in  an  un- 
accented syllable,  it  generally  has  the  sound  of  long  e}  as  in 
o-ri-ent,  injuri-ous,  abstemi-ous,  ordi-nary,  ordi-nal,  vari- 
ance, vari-egate,  op-tim-i-ty,  ep-i-cure.  [Ore-en  t,  in-jure- 
ous,  abste-me-ous,  orde-nary,  orde-nal,  vare-ous,  vare-egate, 
optime-ty,  ep-e-cure.] 

10.  I,  in  words  of  foreign  modern  languages,  has  the 
bmg  open  e  vowel  sound,  as  in  Divan,  Porto  Rico,  machine, 
magazine,  bombazine.  [Devan,  Porto  Ileco,  machene,  maga- 
zine, bombazene.] 

11.  In  some  words,  /has  the  vowel  sound  of  sJiort  u,  as  in 
first,  third.     [Fwrst,  thwrd.] 

12.  la  is  a  two  letter  diphthong,  as  in  christian,  filial, 
poniard. 

13.  la  is  a  two  letter  monothong,  and  represents  the  sound 
of  short  i,  as  in  marriage,  carriage,  parliament.  [Marine, 
cariV/e,  parliment.] 

10.  J. 

1.  J  represents  the  soft  consonant  guttural  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  part  of  jug,  June,  John,  James. 

2.  In  hallelujah,  j  has  the  sound  of  y.     [Halleluyah.] 

3.  J  always  begins  a  word,  or  a  syllable,  and  is  always 
followed  by  a  vowel  letter,  as  in  joy,  jest,  jilt,  injure. 

11.  K. 

1.  7T  represents  the  hard  consonant  guttural  sound  which 
is  heard  in  key. 

2.  K  is  used  where  c  would  be  soft. 

3.  Before  *,  k  is  perfectly  silent,  as  in  /cnave,  know. 

4.  if  is  doubled  in  no  words  except  Habafc&uk,  Okkak, 
and  SuMertop. 

5.  C  before  k,  doubles  the  k  sound,  and  shortens  that  of 
the  preceding  vowel  letter,  as  in  wic&ed,  cackle,  coc&le. 

12.  L. 

1.  L  represents  the  soft  liquid  consonant  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  part  of  lion,  /aw,  lute. 

2.  L  is  silent  in  afais,  half,  and  in  a  few  other  words. 


24  ALPHAOLOGY. 

13  M. 

1.  M  represents  the  obtuse  nasal  consonant  sound  which 
is  heard  in  the  first  part  of  mortar,  and  map. 

2.  In  comptroller,  m  represents  the  sound  of  n — controller. 

14.  N. 

1.  i\r  represents  the  ringing  nasal  consonant  sound  which 
is  heard  in  mangle,  singing,  twinkling. 

2.  N  represents  the  unringing  nasal  consonant  sound 
which  is  heard  in  net,  banner,  and  nun. 

3.  N  final,  preceded  by  m,  is  silent,  as  in  hymn,  column, 
solemn. 

4.  In  columnar,  and  columnarian,  n  is  not  silent. 

15.  0. 

1.  0  represents  the  long  smooth  vowel  sound  which  is 
heard  in  o-celot,  o-possum,  co-lumbo,  note,  veto,  do-minion, 
devotion,  do-tard,  no,  gnomon. 

2.  When  o  is  the  only,  or  the  last,  letter  in  the  syllable, 
it  generally  has  its  long  vowel  sound,  as  in  o-rient,  Porto 
Rico,  e-mo-tion,  devo-tion,  o-pen,  o-val,  bra-vo,  duo-deci-mo, 
o-celot,  veto. 

3.  0  represents  the  shortish  slender  nasal  vowel  sound 
which  is  heard  in  tomb,  prove,  move,  who,  whom,  to,  unto, 
and  do. 

4.  Where  o  is  followed  by  a  final  consonant  in  the  same 
syllable,  it  generally  has  its  broadish  short  vowel  sound,  as 
in  on,  op-por-tunity,  object,  odd,  off,  offdX,  qp-eration,  oph- 
thal-mic.     \_Only,  and  some  others,  are  exceptions.] 

5.  0  represents  the  broad  long  guttural  vowel  sound 
which  is  heard  in  north,  organ,  and  nor. 

6.  In  many  words,  o  has  the  sound  of  short  u,  as  in  son, 
above,  love,  dove,  attorney,  gallon,  dragon,  dost,  person,  one. 

[Snn,  abnve,  lnve,  du\e,  attorney,  gallnn,  dragnn,  dnst, 
persnn,  nwn.] 

7.  In  bacon,  and  a  few  others,  o  has  the  sound  of  kn — 
ba-&?i. 

8.  0  represents  the  shortish  broad  guttural  vowel  sound 
which  is  heard  in  ox,  not,  hot,  torrid,  got. 

16.  P. 

1.  P  represents  the  labial  consonant  sound  which  is  heard 
in  the  first  part  of  pen,  and  in  the  last  part  of  sup. 


ALPUAOLOGY.  25 

2.  P  is  silent  in  psychology,  psora,  pshaw,  pseudology, 
pseudography,  pseudo,  psalter,  psalmography,  ptisan,  ptole- 
maic,  ptyalism,  ptysmagogue,  corps,  receipt,  psalms,  &c. 

[ForpA,  see  page  50.] 

17.  Q. 

1.  Q  represents  the  guttural  consonant  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  part  of  gnail,  jueen,  quarter,  and  in  the 
second  part  of  request. 

2.  Q  is  always  followed  by  u. 

3.  Q  has  a  soft  sound  at  the  commencement  of  a  word,  or 
a  syllable,  as  in  juick,  juill,  in-juire. 

[Exceptions : — liquor,  conguer,  &c] 

4.  Q  has  the  hard  h  sound  at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  in 
risgue,  antique,  oblique. 

18.  R. 

1.  R  represents  the  smooth  lingual  consonant  sound  which 
is  heard  in  proud,  far,  dark,  park,  harrow,  barber. 

2.  R  represents  the  rough  Ungual  consonant  sound  which 
is  heard  in  rabbit,  rose,  roam,  round. 

19.  S. 

1.  S  represents  the  sharp  hissing  dental  consonant  sound 
which  is  heard  in  sister,  master,  fus. 

2.  At  the  beginning  of  words,  s  has  its  sharp  consonant 
sound,  as  in  son,  sir,  slide,  store,  saint. 

3.  S  generally  has  its  sharp  consonant  sound  except  at 
the  end  of  words  where  it  is  preceded  by  a  vowel  letter,  as 
in  sister,  stepts,  smiths,  Cyprus,  cliffs,  theirs. 

Beds,  bags,  &c,  &c,  are  exceptions. 

4.  S  represents  the  fiat  dental  consonant  z  sound  which 
is  heard  in  besom,  nasal,  dismal,  his,  was,  trees,  eyes. 

5.  In  this,  thus,  us,  yes,  thus,  rebus,  surplus,  &c.,  s  has 
its  sharp  sound. 

6.  S  has  the  sound  of  sh,  as  in  sure. 

7.  £  has  the  sound  of  zh,  as  in  pleasure,  measure. 

8.  S  has  the  z  sound  before  ion,  provided  a  vowel  letter 
goes  before,  as  in  intrusion. 

9.  tf  has  its  sharp  sound  before  ion,  provided  a  consonant 
letter  precedes,  as  in  conversion. 

10.  S  has  the  z  sound  before  c  silent,  as  in  amuse. 

8 


26  ALPIIAOLOGY. 

. 

11.  S  has  the  z  sound  before  final  #,  as  in  rosy,  posy. 

12.  JS  has  the  z  sound  in  bosom,  desire,  wisdom,  &c. 

13.  In  isle,  island,  demesne,  and  viscount,  s  is  silent. 

20.  T. 

1.  T  represents  the  dental  consonant  sound  which  is  heard 
in  top,  temper,  take,  and  put. 

2.  When  the  accent  precedes,  t,  before  u,  has  the  sound 
of  teh,  as  in  nature,  guttural,  impetuous. 

8.  Immediately  after  the  accented  syllable,  t  generally 
has  the  sound  of  tch,  as  in  courteous,  righteousness. 

4.  Immediately  after  the  accented  syllable,  and  an  s,  t  has 
the  sound  of  tch  before  ia,  and  io,  as  in  fustian,  baStian, 
fust?*anist. 

5.  Where  there  is  no  s  before  t,  t  before  ia  immediately 
after  the  accented  syllable,  has  the  sound  of  sh,  as  in  peni- 
tential, penitentiary,  influential. 

6.  T  generally  has  the  sound  of  sh  where  it  follows  the 
accented  syllables,  and  precedes  i  followed  by  another  vowel 
letter,  as  in  creation,  indignation,  irnpatiVnt,  cautious. 

7.  T  is  often  silent,  as  in  thistle,  rustle,  whistle,  often. 

21.  U. 

1.  Z7  represents  the  long  slender  vowel  sound  which  is 
beard  in  you,  tube,  juvenile. 

2,  When  u  constitutes  an  entire  syllable,  it  has  its  long 
slender  sound,  as  in  ?i-nicorn,  u-nion. 

o.  When  u  terminates  a  syllable,  it  generally  has  its  long 
sound,  as  in  cu-bic,  pu-iitan,  pu-rist,  pu-rifying,  pu-gil,  fu-zee, 
fru-gal. 

4.  In  syllables  which  have  the  final  e,  u  generally  has  its 
long  sound,  as  in  tube,  cube,  flute?  ac-cute. 

5.  When  u  follows  either  r,  or  rh,  it  has  the  sound  of  oo, 
as  in  rule,  rude,  rhubarb. 

\Uy  in  pugh,  is  pronounced  pooh.] 

U.  ?7  represents  the  shortish  obtuse  vowel  sound  which  is 
heard  in  full,  bushel,  bashful,  careful,  dreadful. 

7.  U  represents  the  short  sharp  vowel  sound  which  is 
heard  in  just,  tub,  butter,  must,  trust. 

8.  In  general,  u  has  its  short  sharp  sound  before  a  conso- 
nant letter  of  the  same  syllable,  as  \mt,  jm?  *'r-e,  must,  pur- 


ALPUAOLOGY.  27 

chase,  purl,  push,  pus-zle,  p^-ty,  rus-ty,  mus-ty,  ruu-agato, 
rund-let,  run,  fun,  r?/.st,  ruMer,  rus-tle,  rus-tic. 

9.  In  many  cases  where  u  follows  r,  it  has  the  sound  of 
oo,  as  in  ride,  rude. 

10.  In  bury,  and  its  compounds,  u  has  the  sound  of  short 
g — and  in  busy,  and  its  compounds,  u  has  the  sound  of  short  t. 

11.  In  a  two  letter  diphthong,  u  has  the  sound  of  w,  as 
in  persuade,  quarter,  queenly,  quell,  inquiry,  quiet,  languid, 
obloquy. 

22.  V. 

1.  V  represents  the  labial  consonant  sound  which  is  heard 
in  the  first  part  of  tain,  ealue,  and  in  the  second  part  of  loue, 
aboyc,  and  do  ye. 

23.  W. 

1.  IT  represents  the  consonant  sound  which  somewhat  re- 
sembles that  of  quick  oo,  and  is  heard  in  wo,  water,  would, 
wind. 

2.  W,  as  a  simple  letter,  rarely,  if  ever,  represents  a  vowel 
sound,  and,  as  a  part  of  a  compound  letter,  the  sound  of 
which  it  is  the  representative,  is  rarely  distinguishable  from 
that  represented  by  the  other  part  of  the  compound  letter. 
But,  where  the  sound  of  which  w  is  the  representative,  is 
heard  by  itself,  it  is  believed  by  grammarians  in  general,  to 
be  that  which  u,  in  the  same  situation,  would  represent 

3.  Wh  is  pronounced  hw,  as  in  who,  when. 

4.  When  w  is  followed  by  r,  it  is  silent,  as  in  writing, 
wrest,  wrench,  wrath. 

5.  Wis  sometimes  silent  before  h,  and  after  a,  as  in  wAolc, 
w^oop,  sword,  answer. 

24.  X. 

1.  X  represents  the  sharp  ks  consonant  sound  which  is 
heard  in  ox,  axe,  exile,  ex-foliate. 

2.  When  x  ends  an  accented  syllable,  it  has  its  sharp 
sound,  as  in  ex-ternal,  ex-cellent. 

3.  When  an  accented  syllable  whieh  follows  x,  begins 
with  a  consonant  letter,  x  has  its  sharp  sound,  as  in  extra- 
vagant. 

4.  X  represents  the  flat  <jz  consonant  sound  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  part  of  exist,  exotic,  exude. 


28  ALPHAOLOGY. 

5.  X  represents  the  obtuse  eh  consonant  sound  which  is 
heard  in  ex-tancy,  ex-tance,  ex-siccative,  ex-script,  ex-suf- 
flation. 

[The  sound  of  x  is  represented  by  chs,  as  in  huchs — by  hs, 
as  in  boo/a — by  cc  in  the  middle  of  a  word  where  e,  or  i  fol- 
lows, as  in  accept,  accident — and  by  ct  before  w»,  as  in  action, 
prediction.] 

6.  When  the  following  syllable  commences  with  a  vowel 
letter,  x,  in  an  unaccented  syllable,  generally  has  its  gz 
sound,  as  in  exitial,  exitious,  exert.  [e/72-ish-yal,  eyz-ish-yus, 
e^z-ert.] 

7.  X  represents  the  hard  consonant  sound  of  eh,  which  is 
heard  in  the  first  part  of  exigent,  exiccate,  extant,  extatical. 

8.  X  represents  the  consonant  sound  of  eg,  which  is  heard 
in  ex-in-a-nite,  cx-imious,  ex-ilement. 

9.  In  individual  names,  derived  from  the  Greek,  x,  at  the 
beginning  of  a  syllable,  has  the  sound  of  z,  as  in  Xenophon, 
JTanthus,  Xantippe,  Xerxes. 

25.  Y. 

1.  Y  represents  the  consonant  sound  which  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  vowel  sound  of  ee}  and  is  heard  in  youth,  Tbrk, 
ye,  yes,  year,  and  yoke. 

2.  Y  represents  the  long  open  vowel  sound  of  i,  which  is 
heard  in  cry,  thyme,  cy-cle,  cy-clopean,  cypress-tree,  cyon. 

3.  ^represents  the  short  i  vowel  sound  which  is  heard 
in  system,  symptom,  cynic,  cymbal,  cystotomy. 

4.  In  a  few  instances,  y  represents  the  vowel  sound  of 
long  e,  as  in  cynanthropy,  synecdoche,  cylindroid,  cymatium. 
[Se-nan-thro-pe,  se-nec-do-ke,  se-lin-droid,  se-ma-she-um.] 

5.  At  the  end  of  monosyllables,  and  a  few  other  words,  y 
has  the  sound  of  long  i}  as,  in  cry,  dry,  apply,  crying,  dry- 
ing, denying. 

6.  At  the  end  of  other  words,  however,  y  generally  has 
the  sound  of  obscure  e,  as  in  body,  mercy,  holy,  liberty,  glo- 
riously, thankfully. 

7.  The  compound  letters,  ay,  cy,  oy,  have  the  sounds  of  ai, 
ei}  and  oi. 

8.  In  general,  y  either  begins,  or  ends  a  word,  as  in  yet, 
duty,  yesterday. 

9.  In  a  few  words  of  Greek  origin,  and  in  a  few  English 
ones  in  which  the  i  sound  is  doubled  in  forming  the  deriva- 


ALrilAOLOGY.  29 

tivc  with  ing,  y  is  neither  inceptive,  nor  final,  but  meilial, 
as  in  dying,  frying. 

[The  inceptive  y  is  a  consonant  letter,  and  the  final  one  is 
a  vowel  letter.] 

26.  Z. 

1.  Z  represents  the  flat  consonant  sound  of  s,  which  is 
heard  iu  zebra,  zenith,  breeze,  freeze,  froze,  frozen. 

2.  Z  can  neither  precede,  nor  follow  another  consonant  let- 
ter; but  it  may  precede,  or  follow  a  vowel  letter,  as  in  zeal, 
froze. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  many  sounds  has  A? 

2.  How  many  sounds  has  B  ? 

3.  How  many  sounds  has  C  ? 

4.  Will  you  give  all  the  sounds  of  A  ? 

5.  How  many  sounds  has  D  ? 

6.  How  many  sounds  has  £  ? 

7.  Can  you  sound  E  ? 

8.  How  many  sounds  has  F  ? 

9.  How  many  sounds  has  Q  ? 

10.  How  many  sounds  has  H  ? 

11.  Will  you  give  the  sounds  of  G  and  H  ? 

12.  How  many  sounds  has  I  ? 

13.  Will  you  sound  I? 

14.  How  many  sounds  has  J  ? 

15.  Sound  J. 

16.  What  is  the  sound  of  K? 

17.  What  is  the  sound  of  L  ? 

18.  Sound  M. 

1 9.  How  many  sounds  has  N  ? 

20.  Sound  N. 

21.  How  many  sounds  has  0? 

22.  How  many  sounds  has  P  ? 

23.  How  many  sounds  has  Q  ? 

24.  How  many  sounds  has  R  ? 

25.  How  many  sounds  has  S  ? 

26.  How  many  sounds  has  T  ? 

27.  How  many  sounds  has  U  ? 

28.  How  many  sounds  has  W  ? 

29.  How  many  sounds  has  N  ? 

30.  How  many  sounds  has  X  ? 

31.  How  many  sounds  has  Y? 

32.  How  many  sounds  has  Z  ? 

33.  Is  the  sound  of  C  hard  in  circle  f 

34.  Will  you  give  tho  seven  sounds  of  A  ? 

35.  Will  you  sound  B? 

3' 


30  ALPHAOLOGY. 

36.  Will  you  sound  C  ? 

37.  Will  you  sound  D  ? 

38.  Will  you  sound  E  ? 

39.  Will  you  sound  F  ? 

40.  Will  you  sound  G  ? 

41.  Will  you  sound  H? 


LESSON  V. 
The  combination  of  Letter  Vowels. 

REMARKS. 

It  is  said  that  the  English  alphabet  has  only  twenty-six  letters. 
But  perhaps  a  close  examination  will  demonstrate  that  this  alpha- 
bet has  more  than  one  hundred  letters ! 

1.  A  letter  is  the  first  principle  or  least  part  of  a  word. — Mur- 
ray. 

2.  A  letter  is  a  character  used  in  printing,  or  writing  to  repre- 
sent an  articulate  sound. — Goold  Brown. 

This  definition  as  well  as  that  given  by  Murray,  makes  each 
combination  of  literal  characters,  a  distinct  letter.  And  the  truth 
is  that  each  combination  of  letters,  employed  to  represent  an  ele- 
mentary sound  in  vocal  words,  is  a  letter.  The  compound  cha- 
racter, ph,  which  is  used  to  represent  the  articulate  sound  that  is 
heard  in  the  inceptive  part  of  the  vocal  word,  /ork,  is  as  clearly  a 
letter  of  the  English  Language  as  is  /.  Ph  is  a  compound  letter ; 
but/  is  a  simple  one.  Nor  is  this  all ;  for  each  character,  whether 
simple,  or  compound,  which  represents  two,  three,  or  four  different 
articulate  sounds,  is  virtually  two,  three,  or  four,  distinct  letters. 
A  in  a-corn  is  not  identical  with  a  in  awl.  Nor  is  a  in  axe,  identi- 
cal with  a  in  arm.  True,  each  a  is  the  same  in  form — but  neither 
two  are  identical  as  the  representatives  of  articulate  sounds.  From 
this  view  of  the  subject,  it  is  clear  that  the  English  Language 
comprises  more  letters  than  elementary  sounds. 

Division  of  Letter  Vowels. 
Letter  vowels  are  divided  into, 

1.  Simple,  and 

2.  Compound. 

1.  A  simple  letter  vowel  is  a  single  letter  which  represents 
a  vowel  sound ;  as,  i9  o. 


ALPIIAOLOGY. 


31 


2.  A  compound  letter  vowel  is  a  letter  which  is  made  up 
of  two,  or  more  simple  letter  vowels  ;  as,  ae,  oi. 

3.  A  compound  letter  consonant  is  a  letter  which  is  made 
up  of  two,  or  three  simple  letter  consonants,  as,  bby  gth. 


1.  Simple 

2.  Compound 

3.  Ompmtnd 

TER  VOWELS. 

Letter  Vowels. 

Letter  Consonants. 

a 

A 

bb 

e 

aa       au 

ch 

i 

ac       aw 

ck 

0 

u 

ai        ay 
ao       aye* 

ct,  [due*.] 
dd 

w 

■ 

ff 

y[7] 

ea      eu 
eau    ew 

? 

ee       ewe 

gn,  |>*aw.] 

ei       ey 

ght 

eo      eye 

gth 

eou 

kn,  [know.] 

i 

11 

ia       iew 

nn 

ie       io 

ph 

ieu     iou 

rr 

0 

rh 

oa       oo 

86 

oe       ou 

sh 

oei     ow 

tt 

oi       oy 

tch,  [lateA.] 

17 

th 

ua      uo 

wh 

ue       uy 

wr 

ui       uoy  [39.] 

zz  [25.] 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  are  the  letter  vowels  divided  ? 

2.  What  is  a  simple  letter  vowel  ? 

3.  What  is  a  compound  letter  vowel  ? 

4.  How  many  simple  letter  vowels  are  there  ? 

5.  How  many  compound  letter  vowels  are  there  ? 

6.  What  is  a  letter  consonant  ? 

7.  How  many  compound  letter  consonants  are  there  ? 


*  Aye :  (alway.) 


32  ALPIIAOLOGY. 

LESSON  VI. 

SUBDIVISION    OF   THE   COMPOUND   LETTER   VOWELS. 

The  compound  letter  vowels  are  divided  into, 

1.  Letter  Monothongs,  and 

2.  Letter  Diphthongs* 

1.  A  Letter  monothong  is  a  combination  of  two,  or  three 
simple  vowel  letters,  which  represents  a  vocal  monothong, — 
a  vowel  sound  that  can  he  represented  by  some  one  simple 
voicel  letter. 

2.  A  Letter  diphthong  is  a  combination  of  two,  or  three 
simple  vowel  letters,  which  represents  a  vocal  diphthong,  two 
rowel  sounds  which  are  so  thoroughly  mixed  that  both  can 
be  taken  as  one. 

1.   Subdvvlswn  of  the  Letter  monothongs. 

Letter  monothongs  are  subdivided  into, 

1.  Ttoo  letter  monot7tongs,  and 

2.  Three  letter  monothongs. 

1,  A  Two  letter  monothong, 

Is  a  combination  of  two  simple  vowel  letters,  which  re- 
presents a  vocal  monothong, — a  vowel  sound  that  can  be  re- 
presented by  some  one  simple  vowel  letter;  as,  oa  in  boat, 
coat,  loaf. 

[Here  the  sound  which  is  represented  by  oat  can  be 
clearly  expressed  by  the  long  open  o.] 

2.  A  Three  letter  monotJwng, 

Is  a  combination  of  three  simple  letter  vowels,  which  re- 
presents a  vocal  monothong, — a  vowel  sound  that  can  be 
represented  by  some  one  simple  vowel  letter;  as,  eau  in 
beauty,  iew  in  view,  and  ieu  in  lieu.     (B«ety,  vu,  lu.) 

[These,  eau,  ieu,  and  iew,  aye  the  only  three  letter  mono- 
thongs in  the  language.] 


ALPHAOLOGY.  33 

II.  Subdivision  of  the  Letter  Diphthongs. 

Letter  diphthongs  are  subdivided  into, 

1.  Two  letter  diphthongs, 

2.  Three  Utter  diphthongs. 

1.  A  Two  letter  Diphthong , 

Is  a  combination  of  two  vowel  letters,  in  which  each 
represents  its  own  part  of  the  vocal  diphthong;  as,  oi,  in 
votce ;  ou  in  found. 

[These,  oi,  and  ou,  are  generally  two  letter  diphthongs.] 

2.  A  Three  letter  Diphthong, 

Is  a  combination  of  three  vowel  letters,  which  represents 
a  vocal  diphthong ;  as,  uoy  in  buoy. 

Under  page  11,  vocal  vowels  are  divided  into  monothongs, 
and  diphthongs. 

1.  A  vocal  monothong  is  made  up  of  one  vowel  sound 
which  can  be  clearly  represented  by  some  one  simple  vowel 
letter. 

2.  A  vocal  diphthong  is  made  up  of  two  vowel  sounds  so 
thoroughly  mixed  that  both  can  be  taken  as  one. 

[On  the  following  page,  I  have  commenced  a  tabular  view  of  the 
various  sounds  of  the  compound  vowel  letters.] 


QUESTIONS. 

1 .  How  are  the  compound  vowel  letters  subdivided  ? 

2.  What  is  a  letter  monothong  ? 

3.  What  is  a  letter  diphthong? 

4.  How  are  letter  monothongs  subdivided  ? 

5.  What  is  a  two  letter  monothong  ? 

6.  What  is  a  three  letter  monothong  ? 

7.  How  are  the  letter  diphthongs  subdivided  ? 

8.  What  is  a  two  letter  diphthong  ? 

9.  What  is  a  three  letter  diphthong  ? 

10.  Are  there  many  letter  diphthongs? 

11.  What  is  a  vocal  diphthong? 

12.  What  is  a  vocal  monothong? 

13.  What  is  a  two  letter  diphthong? 


34 


ALPHAOLOGY. 


LESSON  VII. 


THE    SOUNDS   OF    LETTER    MONOTHONGS,    AND    LETTER 
DIPHTHONGS. 

Letter 
Monothongs. 

Cam  a-corn :  Aaron. 
An     is  equalled  by  -J  a  in  axe :  Isaac. 
(  a  in  arm  :  baa. 


Ae  is  equalled 

Al  is  equalled 

Ao  is  equalled 

An  is  equalled 

Aw  is  equalled 

Ay  is  equalled 


*t 


e  in  e-mew :  asnignia. 

e  in  elephant,  pen  :  aphasresis. 


h 


a  m 
a  in 
e  in 
*  in 

u  in 


a-corn :  sa/1,  hail. 
axe :  plaid,   [plaa7.] 
pen,  said,   [sed.] 
pin :  certain, 
urn :  Britain,  [uu.] 

by  {  a  in  a-corn  :  gaol,  [jale.] 

all :  cause. 

axe :  aunt. 

o-celot :  hautboy,  [hoboy.] 

organ :  launsel.  [lonsel.] 

a-corn:  gauge,  [gage.] 

all:  drau?. 


by 


a  m 
a  in 
o  in 
o  in 
a  in 


by  {  a  in 

(a 
byje 


day,  pay. 
pen :  says,   [ses.] 
e-mew :  quay,  [key.] 


m  a-corn 
e  in 
e  in 


J5a      is  equalled  by 


e  in  e-mew :  car,  near. 
e  in  pen :  head,  [hed.] 
a  in  a-corn :  steak,  [stake.] 
a  in  arm  :  heart,  [hart.] 
u  in  zirn  :  pageant,  [junt.] 


Eau   is  equalled 
Ec       is  equalled 


in  c-celot :  beau,   [bo.] 

in  u-nicorn :  beauty,  [buty.] 


in  e-mew  :  tree,  see,  feel, 
in  a-corn  :  e'er,  ne'er. 


Letter 
Monotfiongt. 


Ei     is  equalled  by 


Eo      is  equalled  by 


ALPiiAOLoar.  35 

a  in  a-corn  :  v«1,  re*gn. 
e  in  e-mew  :  receit. 
i  in  i-bex  :  height,  slight. 
i  in  indian :  foreign,  surfeit. 
e  in  pew :  nonpareil. 

e  in  e-mew  :  people. 

e  in  pen  :  feof,  leopard. 

o  in  o-celot :  yeoman. 

o  in  organ  :  George. 

u  in  urn :  sturgeon.  [ jwn.] 

A      is  equalled  by  j  "  !n  **5T£  £3* 

n  J  (  o  in  tomb  :  rheumatic. 

f  o  in  o-celot :  sew.  [so.] 
Ew    is  equalled  by  I  u  in  w-nicorn :  e?cer. 

^  o  in  tomb :  screw,  [scroo.] 

[These  monothongs,  eu,  and  ew 
are  often  diphthongs.] 

f  a  in  tt-corn  :  prey,  [pra.] 
Ey      is  equalled  by  <  e  in  e-mew  :  money,  [mon-e.] 
(^  i  in  i-bex  :  eye. 

h       is  equalled  by  \  i  !n  ***" :  P'eJ  * 
1  '  lea  e-mew  :  reltef. 

leu     is  equalled  by  {  u  in  w-nicorn  :  adiew.  [adw.] 

Jew     is  equalled  by  {  u  in  w-nicorn  :  view.  [vw.  J 

0«     is  equalled  by  j  °  .in  ^f  ^ :  ^ 
1  ;  (  o  m  all :  broad. 

r  o  in  o-eelot :  doe,  foe. 

Oe      is  equalled  by  J  °  !n  tomb  :  cf<*>  shoe- 

*  J  A  e  in  e-mew  :  foetus. 

^  e  in  pen  :  foetid. 

[0*  is  a  two  letter  diphthong.] 

f  o  in  tomb :  too,  fool. 
Oo     is  equalled  by  -!  o  in  o-celot :  floor,  door. 
(^  u  in  um :  blood,  flood. 


36  ALPHAOLOGY. 


Ou     is  equalled  by 


a  in  all :  ought,  bought, 
o  in  o-celot :  dough,  though, 
o  in  organ  :  ought,  thought. 
^  o  in  tomb  :  soup,  you,  could. 

[Ou  is  generally  a  two  letter  diphthong.] 

Ow     is  equalled  by  {  o  in  o-celot :  know,   [kno.] 

[In  general,  ow  is  a  two  letter  diphthong.] 

[  Oy  is  a  two  letter  diphthong.] 

(a  in  arm  :  guard, 
a  in  axe -.guarantee. 
e  in  pen  :  victuals. 
u  in  M-nicorn :  manttiamaker. 

Be     is  equalled  by  \  "  !n  "-nicOTn  :  ,U"* 

^  •'(em  pen  :  guest,  league. 

C  i  in  i-bex :  guide,  guise. 
XJi     is  equalled  by  •<  i  in  pra  :  circuit. 
(_  u  in  w-nieorn  :  suit. 

Uy     is  equalled  by  f  \  !n  *box  !  Hf    P»f3  .        n 
1  ^  (  e  in  e-mew :  plaguy,    [plag-e. J 


LESSON  VIII. 

LETTER   DIPHTHONGS. 

Ay      is  equalled  by  {  a  in  arm,  and  e  in  c-mew :  ay. 
Oi      is  equalled  by  {  o  in  organ,  and  e  in  e-mew :  toil. 

1.  [In  some  cases  where  oi  is  not  accented,  it  is  a  two 
letter  monothong  where  it  represents  the  sound  of  t  in  pin : 
avoidupois,  connoisseur,  choir,  tortois. 

2.  [Where  oi  is  divided  by  a  want  of  union  in  the  two 
vowel  sounds,  it  surrenders  its  compound  character ;  as  in 
sto-ic.] 


ALPHAOLOGY.  37 

On  is  equalled  by  {  o  in  organ,  and  u  in  pass  :  rownd,  fo?md, 
sownd,  wownd,  ozmce,  thou. 

[On  is  a  two  letter  lnonothong  also.] 

Ow  is  equalled  by  {  o  in  organ,  and  u  in  pwss :  toicn,  now, 

how,  power,  [town,  nou,  ho?/,  power.] 

(Ow  is  a  two  letter  monotbong  also,  where  it  has  the 
sound  of  o  in  o-celot :  know,  Owe,  [kno,  OJ] 

5.    Oy  is  a  two  letter  diphthong,  and  represents  the  same 
vocal  diphthong  which  is  expressed  by  oi. 
JJoy  is  equalled  by  {  o  in  tomb,  and  e  in  emew;   huoy. 

[jBooc] 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  monothong,  aa,  equalled? 

2.  How  many  sounds  has  aa  ? 

8.  In  what  word  does  aa  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn  ? 

4.  In  what  word  does  aa  have  the  sound  of  a  in  axe  ? 

6.  In  what  word  does  aa  have  the  sound  of  a  in  arm  ? 

6.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  monothong,  ce,  equalled  ? 

7.  In  what  word  does  ce.  have  the  sound  of  e  in  e-mew  ? 

8.  In  what  word  does  m  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 

9.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  at,  equalled? 

10.  In  what  word  does  ai  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn? 

11.  In  what  word  does  ai  have  the  sound  of  a  in  axe  ? 

12.  In  what  word  does  ai  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 
18.  In  what  word  does  ai  have  the  sound  of  i  in  pm  ? 

14.  In  what  word  does  ai  have  the  sound  of  u  in  wrn  ? 

15.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  monothong,  ao,  equalled  ? 

16.  In  what  word  does  ao  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn? 

17.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  au,  equalled? 

18.  In  what  word  does  au  have  the  sound  of  a  in  awl  ? 

19.  In  what  word  does  au  have  the  sound  of  a  in  axe  ? 

20.  In  what  word  does  au  have  the  sound  of  o  in  o-celot? 

21.  In  what  word  does  au  have  the  sound  of  o  in  organ  ? 

22.  In  what  word  does  au  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn  ? 

23.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  monothong,  au,  equalled  ? 

24.  In  what  word  does  au  have  the  sound  of  a  in  all  ? 

25.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  monothong,  ay,  equalled  ? 

26.  In  what  word  does  ay  have  the  Bound  of  a  in  a-corn  ? 

27.  In  what  word  does  ay  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 

28.  In  what  word  does  ay  have  the  sound  of  e  in  e-mew  ? 

29.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  ea,  equalled  ? 

30.  In  what  word  docs  ea  have  the  sound  of  e  in  e-mew? 

31.  In  what  word  does  ea  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 

32.  In  what  word  does  ea  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn  ? 

4 


38  ALPHAOLOOY. 

33.  In  what  word  does  ea  have  the  sound  of  a  in  axe? 

34.  In  what  word  does  ea  have  the  sound  of  u  in  wra? 

35.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  three  letter  monothong,  eauy 
equalled  ? 

36.  In  what  word  does  eau  have  the  sound  of  o  in  ocelot  ? 

37.  In  what  word  does  eau  have  the  sound  of  u  in  w-nicorn  ? 

38.  By  what  single  letters   is  the   two  letter  monothong,   ee, 
equalled  ? 

39.  In  what  word  does  ee  have  the  sound  of  e  in  e-mew  ? 

40.  In  what  word  does  ee  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn  ? 

41.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  ei,  equalled? 

42.  In  what  word  does  ei  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn  ? 

43.  In  what  word  does  ei  have  the  sound  of  e  in  c-mew  ? 

44.  In  what  word  does  ei  have  the  sound  of  i  in  i-bex  ? 

45.  In  what  word  does  ei  have  the  sound  of  i  in  ihdian  ? 

46.  In  what  word  does  ei  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 

47.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  eo,  equalled  ? 

48.  In  what  word  does  eo  have  the  sound  of  e  in  e-mew  ? 

49.  In  what  word  does  eo  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 
60.  In  what  word  does  eo  have  the  sound  of  o  in  o-celot? 

51.  In  what  word  does  eo  have  the  sound  of  o  in  organ? 

52.  In  what  word  does  eo  have  the  sound  of  u  in  urn  ? 

53.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  eu,  equalled  ? 

54.  In  what  word  does  eu  have  the  sound  of  u  in  w-nicorn? 

55.  In  what  word  does  eu  have  the  sound  of  o  in  tomb  ? 

56.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  ew,  equalled  ? 

57.  In  what  word  does  eu  have  the  sound  of  o  in  o-celot  ? 

58.  In  what  word  does  eu  have  the  sound  of  u  in  w-nicorn  ? 

59.  In  what  word  does  eu  have  the  sound  of  o  in  tomb  ? 

60.  Is  eu  ever  a  diphthong? 

61.  Is  ew  ever  a  diphthong? 

62.  Is  eu  a  two,  or  a  three  letter  diphthong? 

63.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  ey,  equalled? 

64.  In  what  word  does  ey  have  the  sound  of  a  in  a-corn  ? 

65.  In  what  word  does  ey  have  the  sound  of  e  in  e-mew  ? 

66.  In  what  word  does  ey  have  the  sound  of  i  in  i-bex  ? 

67.  By  what   single   letters   is   the  two  letter  monothong,  ie, 
equalled  ? 

68.  In  what  word  does  ie  have  the  sound  of  i  in  z-bex  ? 

69.  In  what  word  does  ie  have  the  sound  of  e  in  e-mew  ? 

70.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  three  letter  monothong,   ieu, 
equalled  ? 

71.  In  what  word  does  ieu  have  the  sound  of  u  in  w-nicorn? 

72.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  three  letter  monothong,  iew, 
equalled  ? 

73.  In  what  word  does  iew  have  the  sound  of  u  in  w-nicorn  ? 

74.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  two  letter  monothong,  on, 
equalled  ? 

75.  In  what  word  does  oa  have  the  sound  of  o  in  o-celot  ? 

76.  In  what  word  does  oa  have  the  sound  of  a  in  awl  ? 


ALPHAOLOGY.  39 

77.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong  «,  equalled  ? 

78.  In  what  word  does  ce  have  the  sound  of  o  in  o-celot  ? 

79.  In  what  word  does  oe  have  the  sound  of  o  in  tomb  ? 

80.  In  what  word  does  02  have  the  sound  of  e  in  «-mew  ? 

81.  In  what  word  does  os  have  the  sound  of  e  in  p«i? 

82.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  oo,  equalled  ? 

83.  In  what  word  has  oo  the  sound  of  o  in  tomb? 

84.  In  what  word  has  oo  the  sound  of  o  in  o-celot? 

85.  In  what  word  has  oo  the  sound  of  u  in  urn  ? 

86.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  ou,  equalled  ? 

87.  In  what  word  has  ou  the  sound  of  u  in  urn  ? 

88.  In  what  word  has  ou  the  sound  of  a  in  all  ? 

89.  In  what  word  has  ou  the  sound  of  o  in  o-celot? 

90.  In  what  word  has  ou  the  sound  of  o  in  organ? 

91.  In  what  word  has  ou  the  sound  of  o  in  tomb  ? 

92.  Is  ou  generally  a  two  letter  diphthong  ? 

93.  By  what  single  letter  is  the  monothong,  ow,  equalled  ? 

94.  What  is  ow  in  general  ? 

95.  What  is  oy  ? 

96.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  ua,  equalled  ? 

97.  In  what  word  does  ua  have  the  sound  of  a  in  arm  : 

98.  In  what  word  does  ua  have  the  sound  of  a  in  axe  ? 

99.  In  what  word  does  ua  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 

100.  In  what  word  does  ua  have  the  sound  of  u  in  u-nicorn  ? 

101.  By  what  single  letters  is  the  monothong,  ue,  equalled? 

102.  In  what  word  is  ue  equalled  by  u  in  u-nicorn? 

103.  In  what  word  is  ue  equalled  by  e  in  pen  ? 

104.  In  what  word  does  ui  have  the  sound  of  i  in  i-bex? 

105.  In  what  word  does  ui  have  the  sound  of  i  in  pin  ? 

106.  In  what  word  does  ui  have  the  sound  of  u  in  u-nicorn  ? 

107.  In  what  word  does  uy  have  the  sound  of  i  in  i-bex  ? 

108.  In  what  word  does  uy  have  the  sound  of  e  in  pen  ? 

109.  In  what  instance  is  ay  a  two  letter  diphthong  ? 

110.  What  is  oi  in  toil? 

111.  What  is  ay  in  ay  ? 

112.  What  is  oi  where  oi  represents  the  sound  of  l  in  pin? 

113.  What  is  oi  in  connoisseur  t 

1 14.  Where  does  oi  surrender  its  compound  character  ? 

115.  Is  oi  taken  together  in  stoic  ? 

116.  What  is  ou  in  round? 

117.  Is  ou  ever  a  monothong? 

118.  What  is  ow  in  town,  down,  $c.  ? 

119.  Where  is  ow  a  two  letter  monothong? 

120.  What  is  oy? 

121.  What  is  uoy  in  buoy  ?     [Booe.] 


40  ALPIIAOLOGY. 

LESSON  IX. 

If,  as  is  contended  under  page  30,  every  combination  of 
letters,  which  represents  articulate  sound,  is  a  distinct  letter, 
the  English  alphabet  contains  fifty -nine  distinct  letters. 
There  are  thirty-nine  combinations  of  the  vowel  letters, 
and  twenty  of  the  consonant  letters. 

And  if,  as  is  contended  under  page  30,  each  alphabeti- 
cal character,  whether  simple,  or  compound,  is  as  many  dis- 
tinct letters  as  it  represents  different  sounds,  the  simple 
characters  amount  to  about  seventy-two  different  letters,  and 
the  compound  ones,  to  about  one  hundred  and  sixty-two. 

But  it  may  be  said  that,  as  one  man  cannot  become  two 
men  by  following  two  different  vocations,  so  one  alphabeti- 
cal character  cannot  become  two  letters  by  representing  two 
distinct  sounds.  It  is  obvious  that  D.  may  become  two 
mechanics  by  following  two  mechanical  branches  of  busi- 
ness. If  he  makes  shoes,  he  is  a  shoemaker ;  and,  if  he 
makes  machines,  he  is  a  machinist.  As  a  member  of  the 
great  human  family,  D.  is  only  one.  But,  as  a  maker,  as  a 
producer,  he  is  two.  So  also  as  a  component  part  of  a 
twenty-six  letter  alphabet,  a  is  only  one ;  but  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  articulate  sounds,  a  is  eight.  If  a  represents  a 
long  sound  in  one  word,  and  a  short  sound  in  another  word, 
the  one  character  becomes  two  representatives :  it  is  a  long 
sound  representative,  and  a  short  sound  representative. 
Here,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  the  number  of  letters  in 
a  language,  should  be  decided,  not  by  the  number  of  differ- 
ent articulate  sounds  which  each  character  is  employed  to 
represent,  but  by  the  peculiar  construction  of  each  character. 
Hence  a  is  but  one  letter,  because  it  has  a  uniform  figure  ! 
True,  a  in  a-corn,  has  the  same  shape  with  a  in  oil.  But, 
as  the  science  of  Grammar  professes  to  treat  of  letters  as  the 
representatives  of  articulate  sounds,  would  it  not  be  absurd 
indeed  to  reject,  to  disregard,  the  sounds  which  letters  repre- 
sent, in  an  attempt  to  decide  the  number  of  letters  of  a  cer- 
tain language  ?  If  the  different  characters  of  letters,  are 
decided  by  the  nature  of  the  sounds  which  they  represent, 
should  not  the  number  of  letters  be  determined  by  the  num- 
ber of  different  sounds  which  they  express  ? 


ALPHAOLOGY. 


41 


A  JUST   VIEW   OF   THE  ENGLISH   ALPHABET. 


Maple 

Letters. 


Words  in  which  the  same 
character  is  different  letters. 


1.  a  acorn. 

2.  a  arm.     [.4A.] 

3.  a  all. 

4.  a  what,  [whot]  o. 

6.  a  woman,  [woman.]  u. 

6.  a  axe. 

7.  a  many,  [men-y.]  e. 

8.  a  village,  [villige.]  i. 

1.  b  oat 


1.  e 

2.  e 

3.  e 

4.  e 


cat   [&at]  k. 
cider.  [«der.]  t. 
discern,   [diszern.]  z. 
ocean.  [o*Aan.]  o. 

dog. 

faceo\  [fastf.]  t. 
solrfier.  [solyier.]  y. 
education,  [education.]/. 

e-mew. 

elephant. 

open. 

acre,  [acur.]  w. 

/ork. 
of.  [ov 


•] 


yun. 

yiraffe.  [/iraf.]/. 


1.  h  Aat. 

1.  i  i-bex. 

2.  i  pin. 

3.  i  orient  [ore-en.]  e. 

4.  i  flirt  [Hurt.]  u. 

i.  j  y^g. 

2.  j  hallelujah,  [yah.]  y. 

1.  k  Aey. 

1.  1  ft  on. 

1.  m  mortar. 

2.  m  comptroller,  [controller]  n. 


Compound      Words  in  which  the  same 
Letter  combination  is  different 

rowels.  letters. 

1.  aa    .4aron. 

2.  aa    Isaac. 
8.  aa    baa. 

1.  ae    paean,  [pe-an.]  e. 

2.  ae    et  caetera.  [et  cetera.]  e. 

1.  ai  bail. 

2.  ai  fountain,  [fountin.]  i. 

3.  ai  said,  [sed.]  e. 

4.  ai  Britain.  [Britun.]  u. 

1.  ao    gaol,  [jail.]  at. 


1.  aa 

2.  an 

3.  an 


cause. 

aunt,  [ant.]  a. 

gauge,  [gage.]  a. 


1.  aw    batrl.  [ball.]  a. 


[8es.]  e. 
day.  [da.]  a. 


says 


1.  ay 

2.  ay 

3.  ay    quay,  [key.]  e. 

1.  aye  [aye.1  as. 

1.  ea  fear,  [feer.]  ee. 

2.  ea  health,  [helth.]  e. 

3.  ea  steak,  [stake.]  a. 

4.  ea  heart  [hart]  a. 

6.  ea    vengeance.  [vengance.]a. 

1.  eau  bean,  [bo.]  o. 

2.  eau  beauty,  [baty.]  u. 

1.  ee     sheep. 


1.  ei 

2.  ei 

3.  ei 

4.  ei 

5.  ei 

1.  eo 

2.  eo 

3.  eo 

4.  eo 

6.  eo 


4* 


reign,  [rane.]  a. 
deceit,  [decete.]  e. 
height,  [hite.]  i. 
foreign,  [form.]  i. 
nonpareil,  [nonparel.]  e. 

people.  [pcple.J  e. 
feoffment,  [feffment]  e. 
yeoman,  [yoman.]  o. 
leopard,  [lepard.]  e. 
feod.  [fade.]  u.. 


42 


ALPHAOLOGY. 


Simple  Words  in  which  the  same 

Letters.         character  is  different  letters. 

1.  n  wet. 

2.  n  think. 

1.  o  ocelot. 

2.  o  tomb,  [toom.]  oo. 
8.  o  odd. 

4.  o  organ. 

6.  o  son.  [sun.]  u. 

6.  o  bacon,  [ba&n.]  kn. 

7.  o  not. 

1.  p  j?en. 

1.  q  ouail. 

2.  q  risque.  [ris&.]  k. 

1.  r  rabbit. 

2.  r  massacre,  [massacer.]  er. 

3.  r  far. 

1.  s  stove. 

2.  s  nasal,  [nazal.]  z. 

3.  s  sure.  [sAure.]  sh. 

1.  t  tfop. 

2.  t  nature.  [nateAure.]  tch. 

1.  vl  wnicorn. 

2.  u  pwss. 

3.  u  busy,  [biz-y.]  h. 

4.  u  ruminate,  [roommate.  J  oo 

1.  v  vane. 


1. 


wind. 


1.  x  ox.  [o&s.]  Jcs. 

2.  x  exstasy.  [ecstasy.]  eh. 

3.  x  ex-inanite.  [eyzinanite.]ey, 

4.  x  .Zenophon.  [Zenophon.]  z. 
6.  x  extatical.  [eAstatical.]  ek. 

1.  y  Fork. 

2.  y  cry.  [crt.]  i. 

3.  y  system,  [system.]  i. 

4.  y  mercy,  [merce.]  e. 

1.  z  zebra. 


Compound      Words  in  which  the  same 
Letter  combination  is  different 

vowels.  letters. 

6.  eo     Georgic.  [Gorgic]  o. 

7.  eo     surgeon,  [surjwn.]  u. 

8.  eo    galleon,  [galloon.]  oo. 

1.  eou  duteows.  [dutews.]  eu. 
1.  eu    fewd.  [fade.]  u. 

1.  ew    crew,  [croo.]  oo. 

2.  ew    new.  [nw.]  u. 

3.  ew    sew.  [sow.]  o. 

1.  ewe  ewe.  [w.]  u. 

1.  ey    prey,  [pray.]  a. 

2.  ey    galley,  [galle.]  e. 

1.  eye  eye.  [i.]  i. 

1.  ia     poniard,  [ponyard.]  ya. 

2.  ia     diamond,  i. 

3.  ia     parliament,  [parliment.]*. 

1.  ie  grieve,  [greve.]  e. 

2.  ie  die.  [di.]  i. 

3.  ie  friend,  [frend.]  e. 

4.  ie  variegate,  [vary egate.]y«. 

5.  ie  thirtieth,  [thirte-eth.  ]  e-e. 

6.  ie  brazier,  [braze-ywr.]  yu. 

1.  ieu    lieu.  [1m.]  u. 

2.  ieu    lieutenant,  [leutenant.]  ev. 

1.  iew   view?,  [vw.]  u. 

1.  io  marchioness,  [oness.]  u. 

2.  io  cushion,  [cushin.]  i. 

3.  io  omission.  [oniissAwn.]  shu. 

4.  io  million,  minion. 

5.  io  question.  [que8tshuii.]tshii. 
5.  io  question,  [questytin.]  yu. 

1.  iou   precious,  [preshws.]  u. 

2.  iou   glorious,  [glore-us.]  e-u, 

1.  oa    boat,  [bote.]  o. 

2.  oa    broad.  [braud.]  au. 


ALPHAOLOGY. 

Compound  Letter 
vowels. 

Words  in  which  the  same  co 
is  different  letters, 

1.  oe 

2.  oe 

3.  oe 

4.  oe 

antoe-ci.   [an-te-ci.]  e. 
throe,  [thro.]  o. 
canoe,  [canoo.]  oo. 
does,  [duz.]  u. 

1.      oei 

oeiliads.  [e-il-yads.]  e. 

1.       oeu 

manoeuvre,  [manoover.]  oo. 

43 


1 

oi 

2. 

oi 

8. 

oi 

4. 

oi 

4. 

oi 

5. 

oi 

5. 

oi 

6. 

oi 

1. 

00 

2. 

00 

8. 

00 

4. 

00 

4. 

00 

1. 

ou 

2. 

ou 

3. 

ou 

4. 

ou 

5. 

ou 

6. 

ou 

7. 

ou 

1. 

ow 

2. 

ow 

3. 

ow 

1. 

ua 

2. 

ua 

3. 

ua 

4. 

ua 

5. 

ua 

voice,  boil,  toil. 
turquoise,  [turkees.]  ee. 
tortoise,  [tor-tiz.]  i. 
avoirdupois,  [aver-du-pois.]  e. 
connoisseur,  [connesseur.]  e. 
shamois.  [shammee.]  ee. 
chamois,  [chammee.]  ee. 
devoir,  [dev-wor.]  w. 

moon,  fool,  rood,  soot,  moor, 
wool,  [wtil.]  u, 

blood,  flood,  [bind.]  u.  [flwd.]  u. 
door,  floor,  [dore.]  o.  [flore. J  o. 
moor,  [more.]  o.  (not  right.') 

ground,  found,  bound. 

adjourn,  [adjurn.]  u. 

croup,  aggroup.  [croop,  aggroop.]  oo. 

though,  [tho.]  o. 

brought,  ought,  sought. 

could,  would,  [coold,  woold.]  oo. 

lough,  shough.  [lock,  shock.]  o. 

now,  co  a?,  bo  U7,  shower,  tower, 
grow,  low,  prow,  [gro,  lo,  pro.]  o. 
prowl,  [proul.]  ou. 

assuage,  [ass wage.]  wa. 

guard,  [gard.]  a. 

mantua. 

mantuamaker.  [mantumaker.]  u. 

victuals,  [vittles.]  e. 


14 

ALPIIAOLOGY. 

Compound  Letter 
vowels. 

Words  in  which  the  same  combination 
is  different  letters. 

1. 
1. 
2. 

ue 
ue 
ue 

cons!*etude.  [consuetude.]  we. 
to  conq?*er.  [conkicer.]  we. 
cue j  ensue,  [cm,  ensw.]  u. 

3. 
4. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
6. 
6 
6. 
7. 

ue 
ue 
ue 
ue 
ue 
ue 
ue 
ue 
ue 

accrue,  [accroo.]  oo. 
argue,   [argew.]  ew. 
Tuesday.  [Tuesday.]  we. 
guess,   [gess.]  e. 
colleague,  [colleag.] 
pedagogue,   [pedagog.] 
oblique,  [oblike.] 
antique,  [anteek.] 
true,  [troo.]  oo. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

ui 
ui 
ui 
ui 
ui 

languid,  [languid.]  wi. 
guide,  [gide.]  i.  (g  is  here  hard.) 
build,  [bild.]  i.  (short  t.) 
juice,  [jewse.]  w. 
bruise,  [broose.]  oo. 

1. 

uo 

quote,  [kuwte.]  wo. 

1. 

uy 

buy.  [by.]  y. 

1. 

uoy 

huoy.  [bu?oy.]  w. 

LESSON  X. 

Compound  Letter 
Consonants. 

An  application  of  the  Compound  Letter 
Consonants. 

1. 

bb 

a&6,  ebb. 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 

ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 

mche.  [nitsk.~\  sh. 
ostricA.  [ostrie^e.]  dge. 
cAaos.  [A-aos.]  k. 
schedule,  [skedule.]  k. 

1. 

ck 

pac&,  nick.  \ik.~\ 

1. 

dd 

add. 

1. 

ff 

°ff>  sta# 

1. 

gg 

W- 

ALPHAOLOGY.                                             45 

Compound  Letter 
Consonants. 

An  application  of  the  Compound  Letter 
Consonants. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

gn 
gh 

gJiost,  burgh,  [gost,  burg."]  g. 

draught,  [dra/t.]/. 

high,  furlon^A.  [hi,  furlow.] 

1. 
2. 
8. 

ght 
ght 
gth 

draught,  [draft.']/, 
taught,  [taut.]  t. 
length,  lengthen. 

1. 

11 

till,  mill,  hll,  all. 

1. 

nn 

inn.  (A  public  house.) 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

ph 
ph 

phantom,  [/antom.]/. 
Stephen.  [Steven.]  v. 
dip/ithong.  [dipthong.]  p. 
apqp/ithegm.  [apothegm.] 

1. 

pt 

wept. 

1. 

rr 

myrrh. 

1. 

rh 

rAetoric.  [retoric.] 

1. 

ss 

pass,  fuss,  puss. 

1. 

Bh 

s/tall,  bookisA. 

1. 

tt 

butt. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

th 
til 
th 

thank,  think,  panther. 
bre^ren,  worthy,  father. 
TAomas.  [Tbinas.]  T. 

1. 

wh 

when,  who.  [hwen,  hwo.]  hw. 

1. 

wr 

write,  [rite.]  r. 

1. 

zz 

buzz. 

LESSON  XI. 
SOUNDS   OP  THE  COMPOUND  LETTER  VOWELS. 

1.  Aa, 

1.  Aa  has  a  long  slender  sound,  as  in  ^laron. 

2.  Aa  has  a  shortish  flat  sound,  as  heard  in  the  word  baa. 


46  ALPHAOLOGY. 

3.  Aa  has  a  shortish  sharp  sound,  as  heard  in  Balaam, 
Canaan,  Isaac. 

2.  Ae. 

1.  Ae  has  the  long  open  e  sound,  as  heard  in  amigma, 
Cassar,  pagans,  Irenams, — the  short  close  e  sound  in  dias- 
resis,  &c. 

3.  At. 

1.  At  has  the  long  slender  sound  of  long  a,  as  heard  in 
trail,  bail,  vain. 

2.  Ai,  in  a  terminating  syllable  which  is  not  accented, 
has  the  short  close  sound  of  i,  as  in  certam,  mountain. 

3.  Ai  has  the  short  close  sound  of  e,  as  in  agam,  agamst, 
mid. 

4.  Ao. 

1.  Ao  has  the  long  open  sound  of  a,  as  in  gaol. 

5.  Au. 

1.  Au  has  the  shortish  broad  sound  of  a,  as  in  cause, 
aught,  caught. 

2.  Where  au  comes  before  n,  when  n  is  followed  by  a 
consonant,  it  has  the  shortish  flat  sound  of  a,  as  in  laundry, 
launch,  aunt. 

6.  Aw. 

1.  Aw  has  the  shortish  broad  a  sound,  as  in  drau?,  pau>, 
lau1. 

7.  Ay. 

1.  Ay,  like  a/,  has  the  long  open  a  sound,  as  in  pray,  re- 
pay, delay. 

2.  Ay  has  the  short  close  e  sound,  as  in  say,  sayst,  says. 
[Quay,  pronounced  key.] 

8.  Ea. 

1.  Ea  generally  has  the  long  open  e  sound,  as  in  tea,  fear, 
pea,  peach,  teach,  reach. 

2.  Ea  not  unfrequently  has  the  short  close  e  sound,  as  in 
wealth,  health. 


ALPHAOLOGY.  47 

3.  In  a  few  instances,  ea  has  the  long  open  a  sound,  as  in 
steak,  break,  bear. 

4.  When  ea  is  not  accented,  it  has  the  short  obtuse  u 
sound,  as  in  vengeance,  pageant. 

5.  In  a  few  cases,  ea  has  the  shortish  flat  a  sound,  as  in 
heart,  hearth,  hearken. 

9.  Eau. 

1.  Eau  has  the  long  open  o  sound,  as  in  beau,  bureau. 

2.  Eau  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  beauty,  beauti- 
fully. 

10.  Ee. 

1.  Ee  has  the  long  open  e  sound,  as  in  eel,  see. 

11.  EL 

1.  El  has  the  long  open  a  sound,  as  in  veil,  reign. 

2.  El  has  the  long  open  e  sound,  as  in  neither,  deceit,  seize. 

3.  In  some  instances,  ci  has  the  long  open  i  sound,  as  in 
height,  sleight. 

4.  In  many  cases  in  which  the  syllable  is  not  accented,  ei 
has  the  short  close  i  sound,  as  in  surfeit,  foreign. 

5.  In  a  few  instances,  ei  has  the  short  close  e  sound,  as  in 
heifer,  nonpareil. 

12.  Eo. 

1.  Eo  has  the  long  open  e  sound,  as  in  people, — the  short 
close  e  sound,  as  in  leopard, — the  long  open  o  sound,  as  in 
yeoman, — the  short  close  o  sound,  as  in  George, — the  short 
close  u  sound,  as  in  puncheon. 

13.  Eu. 

1.  Eu  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  feud,  deuce. 

14.  Ew. 

1.  Ew  like  eu,  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  Jew,  new, 
a  ewer,  drew,  screw.  [Ew,  and  eu  are  never  pronounced 
like  oo.~\ 

2  In  a  few  instances,  ew  has  the  long  open  o  sound,  as  in 
sew,  shew,  Shewsbury. 


48  ALPHAOLOGY. 

15.  Ey. 

1.  Ey,  in  an  accented  syllable  has  the  long  open  a  sound, 
as  in  prey,  survey,  hey. 

2.  Ey,  in  an  unaccented  syllable,  has  the  long  open  e 
sound,  as  in  valley,  money,  key,  ley.  [Spelled  by  many,  lay, 
and  by  some  lea :  a  meadow,  or  field.] 

3.  In  eye,  ey  has  the  long  open  i  sound. 

16.  Ch. 

1.  Ch  has  the  tch  sound  as  in  c/turch,  charge. 

2.  In  words  which  are  made  from  the  learned  languages, 
ch  has  the  k  sound,  as  in  scAeme,  character,  catecAise,  cAyle, 
schedule. 

[If  schedule  is  pronounced  seo\ile,  ch  is  silent — but  if  it  is 
pronounced  s&edule,  ch  has  the  h  sound.] 

3.  In  words  of  direct  French  origin,  ch  has  the  sh  sound, 
as  in  niacAine,  cAaise. 

4.  Ch  is  silent  in  yac7tt,  scAism,  dracAm. 

5.  When  ch  is  preceded  by  ar,  it  has  the  h  sound,  as 
areAangel,  archives,  arcAipelago. 

6.  In  a  few  instances  ch,  in  this  combination,  has  the  tch 
sound :  arcAed,  arcAer,  arcAery,  arcAenemy,  niarcA. 

17.  Ff. 

1.  FfhsLS,  the  sound  of /in /an,  as  in  sta$  off. 

18.  Gh. 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  a  word,  gh  has  the  hard  g  sound, 
as  in  ghost. 

2.  At  the  end  of  words,  gh  often  has  the  sound  of/  in 
/an,  as  in  tough,  rough,  laugh. 

3.  In  individual  names,  final  gh  has  the  hard  sound  of  g, 
as  in  Chambersbur</A.     [burc/.] 

4.  Gh  is  often  silent,  as  in  high,  plou</A,  hough,  throuaA, 
mi^Aty,  hright,  sight,  fight. 

19.  le. 

1.  Ie  final,  has  the  long  open  %  sound,  as  m  tie,  \ie,  pie. 

2.  Ie,  when  followed  by  another  letter,  has  the  long  open 
e  sound,  as  in  thief,  relief,  grenadier. 


ALPHAOLOGT.  49 

20.  leu. 

1.  leu  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  lieu,  adieu. 

21.  lew. 

1.  lew  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  view,  review. 

22.  Oa. 

I.  Oa,  except  in  brood,  groat,  where  it  has  the  broad  a 
sound,  has  the  long  open  o  sound,  as  in  boat,  coat,  loaf. 

QUESTIONS. 

1 .  How  many  sounds  has  aa  f 

2.  What  are  the  sounds  of  aa  f 

3.  What  sounds  has  ce  f 

4.  What  sounds  has  ait 
6.  What  sounds  has  ao  t 

6.  What  sounds  has  au? 

7.  What  sounds  has  aw  f 

8.  What  sounds  has  ay  t 

9.  What  sound  has  ay  in  day  ? 
10.  What  sound  has  aw  in  draw  ? 

II.  What  sound  has  aa  in  baa  ? 

12.  What  sound  has  aa  in  Aaron? 

13.  What  sound  has  ay  in  say,  says,  and  sayst? 

14.  What  sound  has  at  in  again? 

15.  What  sound  has  ch  in  church  ? 

16.  What  sound  has  ch  in  chyle? 

17.  What  sound  has  ch  in  archives  ? 

18.  What  sound  has  ch  in  schedule? 

19.  What  sound  has  ea  in  ear  ? 

20.  What  sound  has  ea  in  health  ? 

21.  What  sound  has  ea  in  steak? 

22.  What  sound  has  ea  in  heart? 

23.  What  sound  has  ea  in  vengeance  ? 

24.  What  sound  has  eau  in  flambeau  ? 

25.  What  sound  has  eau  in  beauty  ? 

26.  What  sound  has  ee  in  tree  ? 

[The   contraction   e'er,   is   pronounced   air — and  nJer, 
nair.~\ 

27.  What  sound  has  ex  in  reign  ? 

28.  What  sound  has  ei  in  deceit  ? 

29.  What  sound  has  «*  in  height  ? 

30.  What  sound  has  ei  in  foreign  ? 
81.  What  sound  has  ei  in  nonpareil  ? 

5 


f>0  AI.PIIAOLOGY. 

22.  What  sound  has  eo  in  feofment? 

33.  What  sound  hay  eo  in  yeoman? 

34.  What  sound  has  eo  in  people  ? 

35.  What  sound  has  eo  in  George  ? 
80.  What  sound  has  eo  in  dungeon  ? 

37.  What  sound  has  eu  in  feud  ? 

38.  What  sound  has  eu  in  rheumatism  ? 
3  9.  What  sound  has  ew  in  drew  ? 

40.  What  sound  has  ew  in  sew? 

41.  What  sound  has  ew  in  screw  ? 

42.  What  sound  has  ey  in  bey,  prey,  and  survey? 

43.  What  sound  has  ey  in  abey  ? 

44.  What  sound  has  ey  in  eye  ? 

45.  What  sound  has  gh  in  ghost? 

46.  What  sound  has  gh  in  burgh  ? 

47.  What  sound  has  gh  in  plough  ? 

48.  What  sound  has  gh  in  laugh,  rough,  tough  ? 

49.  What  sound  has  gh  in  lough,  and  hough  ? 

[G7t  here,  has  the  sound  of  A*.] 

50.  What  sound  has  ie  in  die,  lie,  pie  ? 

51.  What  sound  has  ie  in  grief,  relief? 

52.  What  sound  has  ieu  in  lieu  ? 
63.  What  sound  has  few  in  view  ? 
54.   What  sound  has  o«  in  boat  ? 


LESSON  XII. 

23.  Op. 

1 .  Of,  when  final,  has  the  long  open  o  sound,  as  in  doe, 
f'A',  throe. 

2.  In  shoe,  and  canoe,  oe  has  the  sound  of  oo. 

•>.    Oc,  a  Latin  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  long  open 
(-  sound,  as  in  antceci,  fetus. 

4.  Oe}  a  Latin  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  short  close 
e  sound,  as  in  fetid. 

5.  Oe  in  the  verb  does,  has  the  short  sound  of  u. 

24.  01 

1 .  01.  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  short  close  o  sound, 
and  the  long  open  e  sound,  as  in  voice,  rejoice,  boil,  co/1, 

2.  0),  when  not  accented,  has  the  short  close  i  sound,  as 
in  avoi'rdupo/s,  connoisseur,  torto/se,  choir. 


ALriiAOLOGY.  51 

J**!  25.   Oo. 

1.  Oo  gcuerally  has  the  long  slender  sound  of  o  in  tomb, 
as  in  too,  soon,  moon. 

2.  Oo  has  the  short  slender  oo  sound,  as  in  fool,  "wool, 
good,  wood. 

3.  Oo  has  the  short  close  u  sound,  as  in  blood,  flood. 

4.  Oo  has  the  long  open  o  sound,  as  in  door,  floor. 

26.  Ou. 

1.  Ou  has  the  short  close  o  sound,  and  the  slender  o  sound, 
as  in  sound,  thou,  ounce. 

2.  On,  as  a  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  short  close  u 
sound,  as  in  tough,  young,  flourish,  rough. 

3.  Ou,  as  a  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  shortish  broad 
a  sound,  as  in  thought,  ought,  bought. 

4.  Ou,  as  a  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  long  open  o 
sound,  as  in  though,  dough,  court,  fould,  mould. 

5.  Ou,  as  a  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  short  close  o 
sound,  as  in  trough,  cough,  lough,  shough. 

0.  Ou,  as  a  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  slender  o,  or 
the  oo  sound,  as  in  soup,  through,  you. 

7.  Ou,  as  a  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  short  oo  sound, 
as  in  would,  could,  should. 

27.  Ow. 

1 .  Ow,  as  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  ow,  aa 
in  down,  broum,  dowry,  shower. 

2.  Ow,  as  a  two  letter  monothong,  has  the  long  open  o 
sound,  as  in  owe,  know. 

28.  Oy. 

1.  Oy  is  a  two  letter  diphthong,  and  has  the  sounds  of  ol 
in  voice,  rejoice,  as  in  oyster,  toy.     [Voycc,  rejoyce] 

29.  Th. 

1.  Th,  inceptive,  has  a  hardish  sharp  sound,  as  in  th<\nk, 
//tick,  Sunder,  th\\\g,  th'mV. 

2.  Th  iu  thee,  that,  the,  than,  then,  their,  these,  there, 
flutter,  this,  thine,  they,  th»u,  thov,  thus,  thy  has  its  soft  flat 
sound. 


52  ALPHAOLOGY. 

3.  Th,  final,  has  its  hardish  sharp  sound,  as  in  sou*£,  dea$, 
breatfA,  mou^. 

4.  The  final  th  in  beneath,  booth,  with,  sooth,  smooth,  be- 
queath, &c,  has  its  flat  soft  sound. 

5.  The  middle  th,  when  preceded,  or  followed  by  a  conso- 
nant, is  sharp,  as  in  a^Awart,  swartAy. 

6.  The  middle  th  in  the  following  words,  has  it  flat  soft 
sound  :  brethern,  burthen,  farther,  farthing,  worthy,  northern, 
mother. 

7.  In  words  which  are  purely  English,  th  between  two 
vowel  letters  generally  has  its  flatish  soft  sound,  as  in 
whiter,  ga^Aer,  nei^Aer. 

8.  In  words  which  are  derived  from  the  learned  lan- 
guages, th  has  its  hardish  sharp  sound,  as  in  apa^y,  ei^er, 
neither,  a^eist,  sympa^y,  A^Aens,  apo^Aecary. 

9.  Th  has  the  sound  of  t  as  in  ^Aomas,  Barnes,  $yme, 
astfmia,  phtf/iisic. 

30.  Ph. 

1.  Ph  has  the  sound  of  /  in  /an,  as  in  Philin,  philoso- 
phy, philanthropy. 

2.  In  nephew,  and  Steven,  ph  has  the  sound  of  v, 
[Nevew,  Steven.] 

3.  Ph  is  entirely  silent  in  apophthegm,  phthisis,  phthisio. 
[Apothegm,  tisis,  tisic.~\ 

31.  Ua. 

1.  Ua  has  the  shortish  sharp  a  sound,  as  in  guard. 

2.  Ua  has  the  short  close  a  sound,  as  in  guarantee,  pi- 
quant. 

3.  Ua  has  the  short  obscure  e  sound,  as  in  victuals. 

4.  Ua  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  mantwamaker. 
[Mantumaker.] 

5.  Ua,  as  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  sound,  of  wf 
and  of  long  slender  a,  as  in  persuade,     [persuade.] 

32.  Ue. 

1.  Ue  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  hlue,  ague,  ensue. 

2.  Ue  has  the  short  close  e  sound,  as  in  guest. 

3.  Ue  has  the  obscure  e  sound,  as  in  league,  intrigue, 
antique. 


ALPEIAOLOGY.  6S 

4.  Ue,  as  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  %o,  and 
of  long  e,  as  in  query,     fqu'ery.] 

5.  Ue,  when  preceded  by  r  or  by  rh,  has  the  long  open  u 
,ound,  as  in  rue,  rueful,  true,  rueing. 

3.    Ui. 

1.  t'i  has  the  long  open  i  sound,  as  in  guide,  guile. 

2.  Ui  has  the  short  close  i  sound,  as  in  conduit,  circuit. 

3.  Ui  has  the  long  open  u  sound,  as  in  fruit,  juice,  suit. 

4.  Ui,  as  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  w,  and 
of  long  open  i  as  in  quiet,     [quiet.] 

5.  Ui,  as  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  w,  and 
of  short  close  i,  as  in  languid,     [languud.] 

6.  Ui,  when  preceded  by  r,  or  by  rh,  has  the  long  open 
u  sound,  as  in  fruit,  fruitful. 

34.  Uo. 

1.  Uo,  as  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  w,  and 
of  long  open  o,  as  in  quote.  [qu?ote.] 

35.  Uy. 

1.  Uy  has  the  long  open  y  sound,  as  in  hvy. 

2.  Uy  has  the  feeble  sound  of  y,  or  the  long  open  sound 
of  e,  as  in  plaguy. 

3.  Uy,  as  a  two  letter  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  10,  and 
of  long  open  e,  as  in  obloquy,  [obloquy.] 


<l 


QUESTIONS. 


1.  What  sound  has  final  oe? 

t3.  What  sound  has  oe  in  shoe,  and  canoe? 

3.  What  sound  has  oe  as  a  two  letter  Latin  diphthong  ? 

4.  What  sound  has  oe  as  a  two  letter  Latin  monothong  ? 
6.  What  sound  has  ei  as  a  two  letter  diphthong  ? 

6.  What  sound  has  oi  when  it  is  not  accented? 

7.  What  sound  does  00  generally  have  ? 

8.  Does  00  ever  have  the  short  slender  00  sound  ? 

9.  Does  00  ever  have  the  short  close  u  sound  ? 

10.  Does  00  ever  have  the  long  open  0  sound  ? 

11.  Is  ou  ever  a  diphthong? 

12.  Is  this  compound  letter  ever  a  monothong? 

13.  Is  ou  a  diphthong,  or  a  monothong,  in  sound? 

14.  Of  what  two  simple  letters  has  vu  the  sound  in  ounce? 
16.  Is  ou  a  monothong  in  tough  f 

16.  Why  ?     [ Continued  m  p.  6tJ.  ] 
"5* 


54 


ALPHAOLOGY. 
LETTER  CLASSISCOPE. 


Alphabet. 

Vowels. 

Conso- 
nants. 

Mutes. 

Semi- 
vowels. 

Liquids. 

Palatals. 

a 

a 

b 

b 

b 

c 

c 

c 

c 

< 

d 

d 

d 

e 

e 

f 

f 

f 

g 
h 

g 
h 

g 

g 

g 

i 

i 

• 
J 

k 

J 
k 

k 

1 

1 

1 

1 

m 

m 

m 

m 

n 

n 

n 

n 

0 

0 

P 

P 

P 

q 

q 

r 

r 

r 

r 

ft 

s 

8 

t 

t 

t 

u 

u 

V 

V 

V 

w 

w 

w 

X 

X 

X 

y 

y 

y 

y 

z 

z 

z 

ALPHAOLOGY. 
LETTER   CLASSISCOPE. 


55 


Labials. 

Dentals. 

Guttural*. 

Nasals. 

Unguals. 

Mono- 
thongs. 

Diph- 
thongs. 

b 

c 

d 

aa 
ae 
ai 
ao 

ay 

f 

g 
k 

m 

1 

au 

aw 

ay 

ea 

eau 

ee 

eo 

m 

ew 

n 

ey 

oi 

P 

q 

ieu 
iew 

ou 
ow 

s 

r 

oa 
oe 

oy 
ua 

t 

oi 

00 

ue 
ui 

V 

z 

ou 

010 

ua 
ue 
ui 

uo 

uoy 

uy 

56  ALPI1A0L0GY. 

[Because  on  in  tough  represents  but  one  simple  sound.] 

17.  What  simple  letter  would  supply  the  place  of  ou  in  rough  ? 
[Close  short  w.J 

18.  Has  ou,  us  a  monothong,  the  shortish  broad  a  sound  ? 

19.  In  what  instance  has  ou  the  long  open  o  sound  ? 

20.  Does  this  monothong  ever  have  the  short  close  o  sound  ? 

21.  What  sound  has  ou  in  tough  ? 

22.  What  somad  has  ou  in  soup,  and  you? 

23.  Why  is  ou  a  monothong  in  soup,  through,  you,  and  your? 

[Because  it  represents  one  sound — moiws,  one,  thoyyos, 
sound.] 

24.  What  sound  has  ou  as  a  monothong  ? 

25.  Is  ow  a  diphthong  ? 

2G.  What  sound  has  ow  as  a  diphthong  ? 

27.  What  6ound  has  ow  as  a  monothong  2 

28.  What  is  oy  ? 

29.  What  sou»d  has  ny  ? 

50.  What  sound  has  the  inceptive  th  ? 

51.  What  sound  has  the  inceptive  th  in  thee,  that,  than,  then,  &c. 

52.  What  sou«d  has  the  final  th  ? 

53.  In  what  words  has  the  final  th  the  flat  soft  sound  ? 

54.  What  soutid  has  the  middle  th  where  it  is  preceded,  or  fol- 
lowed by  a  consonant  ? 

55.  In  what  words  has  the  middle  th  its  flat  soft  sound  ? 

56.  What  sound  has  th  when  between  two  vowel  letters  in  words 
which  are  purely  English? 

37.  What  sound  has  th  in  words  derived  from  the  learned  lan- 
guages 2 

38.  Has  th  the  sound  of  t  in  any  instance  ? 

59.  Does  ph  ever  have  the  sound  off? 

40.  What  sound  has  ph  in  Stephen,  and  nephew? 

41.  In  what  words  is  ph  entirely  silent? 

42.  What  sound  has  ua  ? 

43.  What  sound  has  ua  in  guard? 

44.  What  sound  has  ua  in  guarantee? 

45.  What  sound  has  ua  in  victuals  ? 

46.  What  sound  has  ua  in  mantuamaker? 

47.  Is  ua  ever  a  diphthong  ?  

48.  When  ua  is  a  diphthong,  what  two  simple  letters  does  it 
represent  in  souad  ? 

49.  How  many  so\mds  has  ue  as  a  monothong  ? 

60.  What  sound  has  ue  in  blue  ? 

61.  What  is  ue  in  query  ? 

62.  When  ue  is  a  diphthong,  what  two  simple  letters  docs  it 
represent  in  sound  ? 

53.  What  is  said  in  this  Lesson  of  ui? 

64.  What  sound  has  ui  in  guide  ? 

65.  What  two  simple  letters  does  ui,  as  a  diphthong,  represent 
in.  quiet,  and  in  languid? 


ALPHAOLOGY.  57 

LESSON  XIII. 
LETTER   DEFINING. 

Letter  defining  is  the  process  of  describing  letters  by 
their  characteristics }  and  function*,  as  the  elements  of  literal 
words. 

SPECIMEN  OF  DEFINING  LETTERS. 

1.  Name. 

JVJ     a  simple  consonant,  semivowel,  liquid,  and   nasal, 
having  its  unringing  sound. 

a,  a  simple  vowel,  having  its  long  smooth  sound. 

m,     a  simple   consonant,  semivowel,  liquid,   and  nasal, 

having  its  own  nasal  sound. 
e,      a  simple  vowel,  having  its  short  obscure  sound,  and 

giving  a  the  long  smooth  sound. 

2.  Rhubarb. 

Rh,  a  compound  letter  consonant,  a  semivowel,  liquid,  and 

lingual,  having  the  rough  r  sound. 
u,      a  simple  vowel,  having  its  oo  sound. 

b,  a  simple  consonant,  a  mute,  and  a  labial,  having  its 

own  labial  sound. 

a,  a  simple  vowel,  having  its  long  rough  sound. 

r,      a   simple    consonant,   mute,  semivowel,  liquid,  and 
lingual,  having  its  smooth  sound. 

b,  a  simple  consonant,  mute,  and  labial,  having  its  own 

labial  sound. 

3.  Fog. 

F,     a  simple  consonant,  semivowel,  and  labial,  having  its 

ff  sound.     [Not  its  v  sound.] 
o,      a  simple  vowel,  having  its  short  sound. 
<j,      a  simple  consonant,  mute,  semivowel,  and  guttural, 

having  its  hard  sound. 


58  ALl'IIAOLOGY. 

4.    Givest. 

G,     a  simple  consonant,  mute,  semivowel,  and  guttural, 

having  its  hard  sound. 
i,       a  simple  vowel,  having  its  short  sound. 
v,      a  simple  consonant,  semivowel,  and  labial,  having  its 

own  labial  sound. 
e,       a  simple  vowel,  having  its  close  obscure  sound. 
sf       a  simple  consonant,  &  semivowel,  and  dental,  having 

its  sharp  hissing  sound. 
t,       a  simple  consonant,  mute,  and  dental,  having  its  own 

dental  sound. 

5.    Voice. 

V,     a  simple  consonant,  semivowel,  and  labial,  having  its 

own  labial  sound. 
oi,     a  two  letter  diphthong,  having  its  close  o,  and  its  long 

open  e  sound. 
c,      a  simple  consonant,  mute,  and  semivowel,  having  its 

soft  hissing  sound. 
e,      a  simple  vowel,  have  its  obscure  close  sound. 


6.  Boat 

B,     a  simple  consonant,  mute,  and  labial,  having  its  own 

labial  sound. 
oa,    a   two   letter  monotlwng,  having   the  long  open  o 

sound. 
t,       a  simple  consonant,  a  mute,  and  a  dental,  having  its 

obtuse  dental  sound. 


7.  Emew. 

E,     a  simple  vowel,  having  its  long  open  sound. 

m,     a  simple  consonant,  a  semivowel,  liquid,  and  nasal, 

having  its  obtuse  nasal  sound. 
cw,    a  two   letter   monothong,    having   its   long  open  u 

sound. 


ALPHAOLOGY. 


59 


EXERCISES, 


In  which  every  letter  in  a  word  is  to  be  defined  according  to 
the  preceding  specimen. 


Aaron 

beauty 

money 

mighty 
sight 

baa 

see 

key 

Balaam 

eel 

leat 

tight 

Canaan 

feel 

church 

tie 

Isaac 

veil 

charge 

He 

aenigma 

reign 

scheme 

pie 

certain 

neither 

character 

grenadier 

mountain 

either 

catechise 

relief 

Britain 

deceit 

chyle 

thief 

again 

seize 

schedule 

lieu 

saith 

height 

machine 

adieu 

gaol 

sleight 
surfeit 

chaise 

view 

launch 

yacht 

review 

aunt 

foreign 
marchioness 

schism 

broad 

vaunt 

drachm 

groat 

draws 

nonpareil 

archangel 

boat 

paws 

leopard 

archives 

coat 

laws 

yeoman 

archipelago 

loaf 

delays 

George 

arched 

doe 

repay 

puncheon 

archer 

foe 

pray 

deuce 

archery 

throe 

say 

feud 

archenemy 

shoe 

says 

Jew 

march 

canoe 

sayst 

mew 

archbishop 

antceci 

wealth 

emew 

staff 

foetus 

health 

ewer 

off 

foetid 

steak 

drew 

ghost 

voice 

break 

screw 

laugh 

rejoice 

bear 

sew 

rough 

toil 

tear 

shew 

tough 

coil 

hc^rt 

Shrewsbury 

burgh 

soil 

hearth 

prey 

Johnsburgh 

avoirdupois 

hearken 

survey 

gusto 
high 

connoisseur 

beau 

bey 

tortoise 

bureau 

valley 

bright 

choir 

60 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


LESSON  XIV. 

DIVISION   OF   WORDS    UPON    THE    BASIS   OF    THE    NUMBER 
OF   SYLLABLES   WHICH   EACH   CONTAINS,  into 

1.  Monosyllables, 

2.  Dissyllables, 

3.  Trisyllables,  and 

4.  Polysyllables. 

1.  A  monosyllable  is  a  word  which  contains  but  one  sylla- 
ble ;  as,  the,  is,  but,  mill,  staff. 

2.  A  dissyllable  is  a  word  which  contains  but  two  syllables; 
as,  hu-man,  defend,  up-on. 

3.  A  trisyllable  is  a  word  which  contains  but  three  sylla- 
bles; as,  gen-er-al,  de-pend-ing. 

4.  A  polysyllable  is  a  word  which  has  four,  or  more  sylla- 
bles ;  as,  gen-er-al-ly,  con-tem-pla-tion,  in-com-pat-i-bil-i-ty. 

I.  Syllable  Numbering, 
Is  the  process  of  classing  a  word  by  giving  the  number  of 
syllables  which  it  contains. 

Specimen  of  syllable  numbering. 
The  human  mind  is  generally  fickle. 

The,  a   monosyllable,    gnoniefying   with   mind.       [Defini- 

tion I.] 

human,         a    dissyllable,     gnomefying     with    mind.       [Defini- 
tion II.] 

mind,  a  monosyllable.     [Definition  I.] 

is,  a   monosyllable,    gnomefying   with    mind.      [Defini- 

tion 1.] 

generally,     &  polysyllable,  gnomefying  with  is.     [Definition  IV.] 

fickle,  a  dissyllable,  gnomefying  with  mind.   [Definition  II.] 


EXERCISES. 


1.  [Custom  is]  (the  plague)  (of  wise  men.) 

2.  [Forgiveness  is  divine.] 

3.  [Ingratitude  is]  (a  base  crime.) 

For  more  Exercises,  take  pages  147,  and  177. 


DIVISION   OF   WORDS    UPON    THE   BASIS   OF   THE   STATE   IN 
WHICH   THEY    ARE    USED,    into 

1.  Primitive,  and 

2.  Derivative. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  01 

1.  &  primitive  word  is  one  which  is  in  its  primary  state; 
as,  man,  good,  content,  York. 

2,  A  derivative  word  is  one  which  has  one,  or  more  sylla- 
bles added  to  its  primitive  state ;  as,  munfid,  goodness,  con- 
tentnimt,  Yorkshire. 

II.  Word  Progression, 

Is  the  process  of  classing  a  word  by  giving  the  progress 
of  its  formation. 

Specimen  of  word  progression. 
The  human  mind  is  generally  fickle. 

The,  a  primitive  word,  gnomefying  with  mind.     [Defini- 

tion I.] 

human,        a  primitive  word,  gnomefying   with  mind.     [Defini- 
tion I.] 

mind,  a  primitive  word.     [Definition  I.] 

is,  a  primitive  word,  gnomefying  with  mind.     [Defini- 

tion I.] 

generally,     a  derivative  word,  gnomefying  with  is.  [Definition  II.  ] 

fickle,    *       a  primitive  word,  gnomefying  with  mind.     [Defini- 
tion I.] 

EXERCISES. 


True  religion  promotes  harmonious  intercourse.] 
'They  have  given  occasion]  (for  criticism.) 


1.  [Tr 

2.  [Th 

3.  [We  are  responsible]  (for  the  rest.) 

4.  Rare  effusions.     Pious  thoughts.     A  profuse  admixture. 

5.  [John  gave  an  agreeable  entertainment.] 

6.  [Custom  is]  (the  plague)  (of  wise  men.) 

7.  [Ingratitude  is]  (a  great  crime.) 

DIVISION   OP   WORDS  UPON  THE  BASI8    OF   THE   NUMBER  OF 
ENTIRE   WORDS    WHICH    EACH   WORD   CONTAINS,  into 
Simple,  and  compound. 

1.  A  simple  word  is  one  which  contains  but  one  entire 
word  ;  as,  man,  manly. 

2.  A  compound  word  is  one  which  contains  two  or  more 
entire  words ;  as,  man-kind,  man-servant,  tea-pot. 

III.  Word  Numbering, 

Is  the  process  of  classing  a  word  by  giving  the  number 
of  entire  words  which  it  contains. 

U 


62 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


Specimen  of  word  numbering. 

[The  watchmen  are  very  vigilant;]  (nevertheless  there  is  much 

injury)  (done)  (by  nightwalkers.) 

The,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  watchmen.    [Defi- 

nition I.] 

watchmen,  a  compound  word,  containing  the  two  words,  watch, 
and  men.     [Definition  II.] 

are,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  watchmen.     [De- 

finition I.] 

very,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  vigilant.     [Defi- 

nition I.] 

vigilant,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  watchmen.     [De- 

finition I.] 

nevertheless,  a  compound  word,  containing  the  three  words, 
never,  the,  and  less,  gnomefying  with  its  own 
mono  which  follows  it.     Definition  II.] 

there,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  is.   [Definition  I.] 

is,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  injury.     [Defini- 

tion I.] 

much,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  injury.     [Defini- 

tion I.] 

injury,  a  simple  word.     [Definition  I.] 

which,  (understood),  a  simple  word,  made   synonymous 

with  injury  by  application.     (See  page  107.) 

is,  (understood),   a   simple   word,    gnomefying   with 

which.     [Definition  I.] 

done,  a  simple  word,  gnomefying  with  which  understood. 

[Definition  I.] 

by,  a  simple    word,    gnomefying    with    nightwalkers 

[Definition  I.] 

nightwalkers,    a  compound  word,  containing  the  two  words,  nightt 
•        and  walkers.     [Definition  II.  J 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [We  saw  the  cloudcapt  towers.] 

2.  [They  (that  live  in  gorgeous  palaces,)  have  menservants,] 
(and  goldrings.) 


The  icehouse  is  full]  (of  icewater.) 

The  glowworm  is  well  known.] 

A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard.] 


LESSON  XV. 
Spelling. 
[The  Rules  for  spelling  require  more  attention  than  I  have  been 
able  to  give  them — hence  they  are  not  yet  completed.] 


■ 


84  ETYMOLOGY. 

PART  II. 


LESSON  I. 

ETYMOLOGY, 

Is  the  second  grand  division  of  English  grammar,  and 
respects, 

1.  The  solitary,  and  the  gregarious  state  of  words. — 
(Book  I.  pp.  6,  8.) 

2.  The  constructive  rank  of  assemblages  of  words. — 
(Book  I.  p.  10.) 

3.  The  five  cordictions,  the  life  principles  of  speech. — 
(Book  I.  pp.  17,  54.) 

4.  The  classification  of  words  into  monos. — (Book  I.  p.  22.) 

5.  The  constructive  properties  of  words,  and  monos. — 
(Book  I.  pp.  54, 137.) 

6.  The  dividing  of  words  into  ten  denominations. — [Book 
II.  p.  86.] 

7.  The  power  to  make  certain  distinctions,  which  some 
words  possess  in  addition  to  their  dictionary  meaning.— 
[Book  II.  p.  128.] 

8.  The  variations  in  the  form  of  certain  words. — [Book 
n.  229.] 

9.  The  translation  of  words  Atom  one  denomination  to 
another.— [Book  II.  229.] 

SUBDIVISION  OP  ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  is  subdivided  into  nine  parts,  viz. : — 

1.  Sym-monology.     (Book  I.  pp.  6,  8.) 

2.  Be-maology.     (Book  I.  pp.  6,  10.) 

3.  Car-diology.     (Book  I.  pp.  6,  17.) 

4.  Mo-nology.     (Book  I.  pp.  6,  22.) 

5.  Tropology.     (Book  I.  pp.  6,  54,  137.) 


CLASSIOLOGY.  85 

[The   first  five   parts  of  Etymology,  are   treated  of  in 
Book  I.] 

6.  Classiology. 
(Classis,  a  class,  and  logos,  a  word.) 

7.  Ectology. 

(Ektos,  extra,  in  addition  to,  and  logos,  a  word.) 

8.  Mutology. 

(Muto,  to  change,  and  logos,  a  word.) 

9.  Syndicology. 

(Syn,  together,  or  with,  diko,  to  signify,  and  logos,  doc- 
trine, word.) 

[If  Etymology  really  comprises  nine  distinct  parts,  why 
should  not  these  parts  be  distinctly  defined  ?] 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Into  how  many  grand  divisions  is  English  grammar  divided? 

2.  What  is  the  first  grand  division  of  English  grammar  ? 

3.  What  is  the  second  grand  division  ? 

4.  What  does  the  second  grand  division  respect  ? 

5.  Can  you  name  the  five  parts  of  Etymology,  which  are  treated 
of  in  Book  I.  ? 

3.  What  four  parts  of  Etymology,  are  treated  of  in  Book  II.  ? 


PART  VI. 

LESSON  I. 
CLASSIOLOGY, 


Is  the  sixth  part  of  Etymology,  and  respects  the  general 
classification  of  words  upon  the  basis  of  their  denominative, 
or  class  characteristics. 

8 


80  CLASSIOLOGY. 


A   DENOMINATION   OF   WORDS. 

A  denomination  of  words  is  a  number  of  verbal  signs, 
which  have  the  same  characteristic  mark. 

[The  word,  noun,  means  but  one  word,  as  John  is  a  noun. 
But  the  words,  noun  denomination,  mean  an  entire  class 
of  words,  the  whole  family  of  nouns.] 

It  seems  perfectly  inconsistent  with  philosophy,  that  a  system  of  Grammar  should 
not  contain  class  names. 

The  word,  book,  is  a  noun ;  but  this  word  is  not  a  class  of  words !  The  word, 
walks,  is  a  verb ;  hut  as  the  word,  walks,  is  not  a  class  of  words,  how  can  it  be  said 
that  the  word,  verb,  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  words  ? 

To  supply  this  deficiency,  it  seems  necessary  to  have  a  technical  term  which 
means  a  class  of  words.  Therefore  I  have  employed  the  word,  denomination,  in  the 
sense  of  a  class  of  words. 

Characteristic. 

In  Grammar,  a  characteristic  is  the  property  by  which  a 
word  is  thrown  into  a  particular  denomination. 

Under  Classiology,  the  words  of  the  English  Language  are  divided  into  ten  de- 
nominations. Bu  t,  as  in  analyzing  words,  it  is  convenient  to  speak  of  them  singly, 
each  member  of  a  denomination,  receives,  as  its  individual  name,  the  particular 
distinctive  epithet  which  designates  its  own  denomination. ' 

In  English,  there  are  ten  denominations  of  words,  viz.  : 

1.  Noun  denomination. 

2.  Pronoun  denomination. 

3.  Verb  denomination. 

4.  Preposition  denomination. 

5.  Conjunction  denomination. 

6.  Adjective  denomination. 

7.  Subadjective  denomination. 

8.  Adverb  denomination. 

9.  Subadverb  denomination. 
10.  Interjection  denomination. 

There  is  certainly  a  serious  objection  to  the  following  language  which  is  used  by 
the  old  school  grammarians :  j 

u  There  are  ten  parts  of  speech. ,y 

As  every  word  in  a  language  is  a  part  of  it,  there  must  be  as  many  parts  of 
speech  as  there  are  words  in  a  language.  Every  verb  is  a  part  of  language.  Hence 
if  there  are  ten  thousand  verbs  in  the  English  language,  the  verbs  alone  make  ten 
thousand  parts  of  speech ! !    [See  Appeal,  p.  319.] 


CLASS1GL0GY.  87 

1.    THE   NOUN    DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  class  of  trunk  words  which  are  the  regular,  fixed 
names  of  the  things  that  hold  a  trunk  rank  in  the  colloca- 
tion, or  presentation,  of  the  objects  of  thought ;  as,  Ring, 
gold,  leather,  cloth,  book,  jun,  paper,  virtue,  vice. 

The  word,  trunk,  expresses  not  only  an  ability  to  stand  alone,  but 
a  capacity  to  sustain  branch  matter. 

Now,  whether  an  object  becomes  (rutiklike  from  the  circumstance 
that  it  is  taken  alone,  or  from  the  consideration  that  it  is  taken 
with  branch  matter  which  it  is  made  to  sustain,  the  regular,  fixed 
name  by  which  it  is  presented,  is  a  noun ;  as,  ring,  large  gold 
ring. 

In  the  first,  the  ring  is  taken  alone — it  is  made  to  stand  by 
itself — hence  the  ring,  in  this  isolated  state,  resembles  a  trunk 
without  a  branch. 

In  the  second  instance,  the  ring  is  taken  in  connection  with 
branch  matter  which  cannot  sustain  itself,  for  the  size,  and  kind 
cannot  stand  without  the  aid  of  the  ring  to  which  they  naturally 
belong,  and  on  which,  they  as  naturally  depend  as  do  the  branches 
upon  the  trunk. 

In  the  following,  the  ring  is  presented  by  the  word,  it — and,  ns 
this  little  word  is  not  the  regular,  fixed  name  of  any  object,  the 
word,  it,  is  not  of  the  noun  denomination. 

That  is  a  beautiful  ring — may  I  examine  it. 

Additional  Illustrations. 

1.  Gold  ring. 

2.  Ring  dove. 

3.  Leather  shoe. 

4.  Shoe  leather. 

5.  Pie  apples. 
G.  Apple  pic 

7.  John  is  here. 

8.  John  Adams  was  there. 

9.  Where  is  the  man  ? 

10.  Where  is  the  man  servant? 

11.  Call  the  servant  maid. 

12.  Tell  the  maid  servant  to  come  here. 
18.  Joseph  bought  some  good  peaches. 

14.  Joseph  Brown  has  peach  brandy. 

15.  Brass  rules  are  made  of  brass. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.   Why  is  ring,  in  the  first  syllabane,  a  noun  ? 

Uccau.se  it  is  a  trunk  word  which  is  a  regular,  fixed  uamc  of  an 


88  CLASSIOLOGY. 

object  that  holds  a  trunk  rank  in  the  iriincFs  own  collocation  of  the 
two  things  named  in  the  syllabane.  [The  material,  and  the  thing 
made.] 

2.  Why  is  not  r%ngi  in  the  second  syllabane,  a  noun  f 
Ring  here,  is  not  even  a  trunk  word.  Ring,  in  the  second  in- 
stance, is  not  only  not  a  trunk  word,  but  it  is  not  the  name  of  an 
object  which  holds  a  trunk  rank  in  the  mind's  collocation  of  the 
two  things  mentioned  in  the  syllabane.  Ring,  in  the  second  in- 
stance, is  a  branch  word,  and  is  the  name  of  a  distinctive  mark 
which  holds  a  branch  rank  in  the  mind's  collocation,  or  disposition 
of  it  in  respect  to  the  dove. 

REMARK. 

What  the  trunk  is  to  the  branch  parts  in  the  framework  of  a 
tree,  the  noun  is  to  the  branch  words  in  the  framework  of  a  sylla- 
bane; as,  Good  gold,  Moses  smote  the  rock.  Gold,  Moses,  and 
rock  are  nouns. 

NOUN  TESTS. 

Test  I. 

In  general,  if  the  isolated  word  when  placed  after  John's, 
John,  new,  Miss,  Mrs.,  or  Mr.,  becomes  the  trunk  of  the 
syllabane,  it  is  of  the  noun  denomination ;  as,  John's  book, 
John  Adams,  Miss  Adanis,  Mrs.  Franklin,  Mr.  Washington, 

Test  II. 

If  the  gregarious  word  holds  the  trunk  rank  where  it 
stands,  and  in  the  test  syllabane  too,  it  is  of  the  noun  de- 
nomination; as,  gold  ring — John's  ring.  Ring  dove — 
John's  ring. 

Although  the  word,  ring,  becomes  the  trunk  part  of  the  sylla- 
bane, John's  ring,  with  as  much  ease  as  it  does  in  the  first  instance, 
yet,  in  the  syllabane,  ring  dove,  ring  is  not  of  the  noun  denomina- 
tion. In  the  syllabane,  ring  dove,  ring  is  a  mere  branch  word ; 
hence  it  does  not  hold  the  same  framework  rank  in  the  syllabane, 
ring  dove,  which  it  holds  in  the  syllabane,  John's  ring.  In  "John's 
ring,"  ring  is  the  trunk,  the  basis,  the  foundation,  part;  but,  in 
M  ring  dove,"  ring  is  a  mere  branch  word. 

Test  HI. 

The  word  which  does  not  become  a  trunk  name  when 
placed  after  John's,  John,  new,  Miss,  Mrs.,  or  Mr.,  is  not  of 
the  noun  denomination  :  as,  John's  the,  John  the,  new  the, 
Miss  the,  Mrs.  the,  Mr.  the. 


CLASSIOLOGY. 

»y 

DISPLAY   OF   TUB   TESTS. 

John 

i 

John 

* 

New 

j 

Miss 

j 

Mrs. 

5 

Mr. 

t. 

APPLICATION   OF   THE   NOUN 

TESTS, 

To  the  words,  strength,  Rome,  Adams, 

Franklin, 

Taylor, 

and  Washington. 

1. 

John's  strength. 

2. 

John  Adams. 

3. 

New  Rome. 

4. 

Miss  Franklin. 

5. 

Mrs.  Taylor. 

6. 

Mr.  Washington. 

TESTING. 

Testing  is  the  process  of  deciding  the  denomination  of  a 
word  by  the  means  of  &  fixed  test. 

1.  That  man  has  great  strength  of  mind. 

Tested: 

that  is  not  of  the  noun  denomina- 
tion because  it  is  not  here  made  a 
trunk  word.  Test  III. 
man  a  word  of  the  noun  denomina- 
tion because  it  is  here  made  a  trunk 
word.     Test  II. 

has  is  not  of  the  noun  denomina- 
tion because  it  is  not  here  made  a 
trunk  word.  Test  III. 
great  is  not  of  the  noun  denomina- 
tion because  it  is  not  here  made  a 
trunk  word.     Test  III. 

Strength — John's  strength — strength  is  a  word  of  the  noun  de- 
nomination because  it  is  here  made 
a  trunk  word.  Test  II. 
of  Is  not  of  the  noun  denomination 
because  it  is  not  here  made  a  trunk 
word.     Test  III. 


Thai-^ John's  that— 


Man — John's  man- 


Has — John's  has — 


Great — John's  great — 


Of— John's  of— 


90  CLASSIOLOGY. 

Tested: 
Mind — John's  mind—-'         mind  a  word  of  the  noun  denomina- 
tion because  it  is  here  made  a  trunk 
name.     Test  II. 

Ring.     Leather.     This. 

Ring — John's  ring —  ring  a  word  of  the  noun  denomina- 

tion because  it  can  be  made  a  trunk 
word.     Test  I. 

This — John's  this—*  this  is  not  of  the  noun  denomina- 

tion because  it  is  not  here  made  a 
trunk  word.     Test  III. 

[There  is  one  view  which  may  be  taken  of  this  in  the  syllabanc, 
John's  this,  which  renders  this  a  noun — but  it  may  not  be  wise  to 
give  this  view  now.] 

EXERCISES, 

In  which  the  child  should  be  thoroughly  drilled  according  to 
the  preceding  specimens. 

1.  [That  the  child  may  have  the  tests  which  are  to  be  applied 
in  these  Exercises,  constantly  before  him,  I  have  placed  them  at 
the  head  of  each  page  under  which  any  of  the  Exercises  occur.] 

2.  [The  child  should  be  required  to  test  every  word  in  a  sylla- 
bane ;  and  he  should  be  required  to  apply  the  Test  to  each  word 
before  he  attempts  to  say  whether  it  is  of  the  noun  denomination, 
or  not.] 

Test  I.  In  general,  if  the  isolated  word  when  placed 
after  John's,  John,  new,  Miss,  Mrs.,  or  Mr.,  becomes  the 
trunk  of  the  syllabane,  it  is  of  the  noun  denomination ;  as, 
John's  book,  John  Adams,  Miss  Adams,  Mrs.  Franklin,  Mr. 
Washington. 

exercises  in  testing. 

Peter.  built.  in.  of.  Samuel's. 

Shoes.  made.  into.  from.  Peter's. 

Temple,  where.  the.  beyond.  men's. 

Lucy.  Sally.  temple.  Solomon's.  Murray's. 

Test  II. — If  the  gregarious  word  holds  the  trunk  rank 
where  it  stands,  and  in  the  test  syllabane  too,  it  is  of  the 
noun  denomination ;  as,  gold  ring — John's  ring ;  Ring  dove 
— John's  dove. 

Test  III. — The  word  which  does  not  become  a  tr\ 


CLASSIOLOGY.  91 

name  when  placed  after  John's,  John,  new,  Miss,  Mrs.,  or 
Mr.,  is  not  of  the  noun  denomination ;  as,  John's  the}  John 
the,  new  the,  Miss  the,  Mrs.  the,  Mr.  tJie. 


EXERCISES   IN   TESTING. 

1.  Peter  made  Samuel's  shoes.  [  Two  nouns  in  the  mono.] 

2.  Samuel  cut  Peter's  hand.  [Two  nouns  in  the  mono.] 

3.  Lucy  knits  men's  mittens.  [Two  nouns  in  the  mono.] 

4.  Sally  makes  ladies'  clothes.  [  Two  nouns  in  the  mono.] 

5.  Julia  studies  Murray's  Grammar.  [Two  nouns  in  the 
mono.] 

6.  Harriet  read  Homer's  Iliad.  [Two  nouns  in  the  mono.] 

7.  Men  built  Solomon's  temple.     [Two  nouns  in  the 
mono.] 

8.  John  bought  some  shoe  leather. 

9.  James  Boston  purchased  this  leather  for  shoes. 

10.  Nancy  made  this  bread. 

11.  Mrs.  West  made  this  bread  pudding. 

12.  Isaac,  is  it  not  almost  pudding  time  ? 

13.  This  is  beautiful  marble. 

14.  That  building  is  a  marble  house. 

15.  This  marble  is  for  that  man. 

16.  These  men  purchased  three  bushels  of  salt. 

17.  Is  this  salt  water? 

18.  Give  me  a  water  cracker,  Isaac. 

19.  Have  you  cloth  shoes,  Nancy  ? 

20.  John  Sampson  has  cloth  for  a  coat. 

21.  What  have  you  in  your  coat  pocket? 

22.  Have  you  a  good  pocket  knife  ? 

23.  The  meeting  was  held  in  the  court  house. 

24.  The  court  is  now  in  session. 

25.  Where  are  the  silver  spoons  ? 

26.  These  spoons  are  made  of  silver 


92  CLASSIOLOGY. 

27.  He  likes  spoon  victuals. 

28.  Potiphar  did  persecute  Joseph. 

29.  Israel  worshipped  the  golden  calf? 

30.  Moses  destroyed  the  calf. 

31.  Eleazar  was  consecrated. 

32.  Jericho  did  fall. 

33.  The  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan. 

34.  The  Jordan  was  crossed. 

35.  Moses  served  Jethro. 

36.  Jacob's  remains  were  transported. 

37.  Moses  did  send  spies. 

38.  Joshua  stopped  the  sun. 

39.  The  moon  was  stopped  too. 

40.  Eglon  did  oppress  Israel. 

41.  The  ark  had  been  taken  away. 

42.  Jabin  did  oppress  Israel. 

43.  The  Levites  exterminated  the  Benjamites. 

44.  Gideon  routed  the  Midianites. 

45.  Ruth  must  have  followed  Naomi. 

46.  Gideon  was  chosen  to  rescue  Israel. 

47.  Cicero  was  banished. 

48.  Sylla  did  plunder  Athens. 

49.  Jacob  fled  to  escape  Esau. 

50.  Esau  sold  his  birthright  to  procure  pottage. 

51.  Socrates  was  doomed  to  die. 

52.  Rome  was  to  be  destroyed. 

53.  Sodom  was  to  be  destroyed. 

54.  God  intended  to  destroy  Gomorrah. 

55.  "Who  saw  Memnon  invent  letters  ? 


Proceed  as  follows : 

Teacher. — How  many  nouns  has  the  sentence  which  is 
marked  28  ? 


CLASSIOLOGY.  Vd 

Pupil. — It  has  two,  viz.,  Potiphar,  and  Joseph. 

Teacher. — How  many  nouns  has  the  29th  sentence  t 

Pupil. — It  has  two,  viz.,  Israel,  and  calf. 

Teacher. — Why  is  calf  a  noun  ? 

Pupil. — Because  it  is  a  trunk  word,  and  a  regular  fixed 
name  of  a  thing  which  holds  a  trunk  rank  in  the  mind's 
collocation  of  the  things,  mentioned  in  the  sentence. 


3.    THE   VERB   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  large  class  of  cordictive  branch  words  which  act  in  a 
quadruple,  triple,  double,  or  single  capacity,  as  occasion  re- 
quires; as, 

1.  John  loves  his  enemies,  John  has  books.      Quadruple. 

2.  John  will  love  his  enemies ;  Go  thou.      Triple. 

3.  John  having  a  book,  he  read  aloud.      Triple. 

4.  John  being  wise,  we  took  his  advice.     Double. 

5.  John  will  love  his  enemies.     Single. 

6.  John  will  be  good.     Single. 

7.  John  will  have  come  by  ten  o'clock.     Single. 

[The  same  definition  in  another  form.'] 

3.   THE   VERB  DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  large  class  of  cordictive  branch  words  which  exert, 
or  surrender  their  cordictive,  ascribing,  tense,  and  their  signi- 
ficant power,  as  occasion  requires ;  as, 

1.  I  have  a  book. 

Here  have  exerts  Mb  four  powers. 

2.  I  can  have  a  book. 

Here  can  exerts  its  four  powers.  But  have  surrenders  three  ; 
have  exerts  its  significant  power  only. 

3.  John  can  be  good. 

Here  can  exerts  its  four  powers.  But  be  surrenders  three ;  be 
exerts  its  ascribing  power  only. 

4.  John  will  have  come  by  ten  o'clock. 

Here  mil  exerts  its  cordictive,  its  significant,  and  its  tense  power. 


94  CLASSIOLOGY. 

Have  exerts  its  tense  power  only.  Come  exerts  its  significant 
power  only. 

Have,  Be. 

Have,  and  Be  are  the  only  verbs  which  are  required  to  surren- 
der both  their  cordictive,  and  their  significant  power,  on  any  occa- 
sion. 

Where  be,  or  been  is  used  to  ascribe  something  which  is  expressed 
by  other  words,  it  surrenders  both  its  cordictive,  and  its  significant 
power;  as, 

1.  John  can  he  good. 

2.  James  will  be  a  good  boy. 

3.  Joseph  has  been  good. 

4.  Nathaniel  will  have  been  in  the  city  three  weeks  next 
Monday. 

1.  In  the  first,  be  ascribes  the  goodness,  expressed  by  good,  to 
John. 

2.  In  the  second,  be  is  used  to  ascribe  the  predicate,  a  good  boy, 
to  James. 

3.  In  the  third,  be,  thrown  into  been,  ascribes  the  goodness,  de- 
noted by  good,  to  Joseph. 

4.  In  the  fourth,  been,  (which  is  be  in  another  form, )  is  employed 
to  ascribe  Nathaniel  to  the  city — or  rather,  to  ascribe  him  to  the 
place  denoted  by  in.  In  the  following,  however,  be  exerts  its  sig- 
nificant power  only : — 

John  must  be. 

That  is,  he  must  exist. 


Have. 

Where  have  is  used  to  fix  the  time  of  the  mono,  it  surrenders  its 
ascribing,  its  cordictive,  and  its  significant  power ;  as, 

1.  John  could  have  written  last  week. 

2.  Nathaniel  will  have  been  in  Philadelphia  three  weeks 
next  Monday. 

3.  I  shall  have  seen  my  father  by  one  o'clock  to-morrow. 

4.  I  shall  have  a  book  soon. 

In  the  fourth,  have  retains  its  significant  power,  which  it  exerts 
in  expressing  possession. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  95 

5.  I  have  written  several  books. 

Here  have  surrenders  its  significant,  but  retains  its  cordictive,  its 
(scribing,  and  its  tense  power. 

1.  I  have  a  book.    (Exertion  of  the  four  powers.) 

2.  They  do  the  work.     (Exertion  of  the  four  powers.) 

3.  I  can  have  a  book.  (Can.  Exertion  of  the  four 
powers.) 

4.  Has  he  a  book.     (Exertion  of  the  four  powers.) 

5.  I  have  written  a  book.  (Have  exerts  three  powers — 
written  one.) 

6.  I  can  have  a  book.  (Have  exerts  its  significant  power 
only.) 

7.  They  do  write  books.  (Do  exerts  its  cordictive,  its 
ascribing,  and  its  tense  power — write  exerts  its  significant 
power  only.) 

8.  I  am  sick.  (Am  surrenders  its  significant,  but  exerts 
its  cordictive,  ascribing,  and  its  tense  power.) 

9.  I  am.  (Here  am  exerts  its  four  powers.  Am  here 
expresses  existence.) 


[Another  form  of  the  same  definition.'] 

3.    THE   VERB   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  large  class  of  cordictive  branch  words  which  may  act 
in  the  quadruple  capacity  of  exerting  their  cordictive,  signi- 
ficant, ascribing,  and  tense  power  ;  as,  John  resembles  her: — 
in  the  triple  capacity  of  exerting  their  cordictive,  significant, 
and  tense  power ;  as,  John  will  read,  Read  thou : — in  the 
double  capacity  of  exerting  their  cordictive,  and  ascribing 
power;  as,  John  being  ready,  he  departed: — in  the  single 
capacity  of  exerting  their  significant,  their  ascribing,  or  their 
tense  power;  as,  John  can  write,  Jane  will  be  good. 

1.  The  exertion  of  both  the  cordictive,  and  significant  power,  is 
required  when  it  devolves  on  the  verb,  not  only  to  aid  in  forming 
the  cordiction,  but  to  express  that  to  which  the  cordiction  relates; 
as,  I  have  a  book ;  I  can  have  a  book. 

2.  The  exertion  of  but  one  of  these  powers,  is  required  when 
it  does  not  devolve  on  the  verb  to  do  both  acts,  but,  either  to 


96  CLASSIOLOGY. 

aid  in  forming  the  cordiction,  or  to  express  that  to  which  the  cor- 
diction  relates  ;  as,  I  have  written  a  book ;  I  can  have  a  book  ;  I 
can  write  a  book ;  I  am  sick. 


4.    THE   PREPOSITION   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  small  class  of  uncordictive  branch  words  appropriated 
to  the  nouns,  and  pronouns  of  the  uncordictive  monos,  to 
express  where,  or  what  one  thing  is  in  respect  to  another;  as, 

1.  Joseph  is  in  the  house.     [Where? — in."] 

2.  John  is  on  the  house.     [Where? — on.] 

3.  Johnson  is  under  the  house.     [Where? — under, .] 

4.  Stephen  was  at  the  house.     [Where* — at.~\ 

5.  Samuel  will  be  over  the  house.     [  Where? — over.] 

6.  The  bird  flew  between  the  trees.     [  Where? — between.'] 

7.  The  belt  was  about  his  waist.     [Where? — about.'] 

8.  He  went  out  about  the  third  hour.    [  Where? — about.] 

Where  was  this  act  in  respect  to  the  third  hour  ?  Was  it  under, 
over,  or  beyond?  It  was  about:  that  is,  it  was  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  third  hour. 

9.  He  spake  against  her.  [  What  the  speech  is  in  respect 
to  her.]  (Against  expresses  the  unfavourable  character  of 
the  speech  in  respect  to  her.) 


5.    THE   CONJUNCTION   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  small  class  of  uncordictive  branch  words  appropriated 
to  cordictive  sub  syllabanes,  to  express  what  the  predicates 
of  the  sub  syllabanes,  are  to  the  predicates  of  the  supers ;  as, 

1.  [Joseph  went,]  (because  John  wanted  to  see  him.) 
Because. 

In  the  trone,  it  is  predicated  of  Joseph,  that  he  went;  in  the  clad, 
it  is  predicated  of  John,  that  John  wanted  to  see  him.  Here,  then, 
are  two  predicates — and  the  point  to  be  decided  is,  what  is  one  in 
respect  to  the  other.  This  point  is  clearly  decided  by  because: 
because  indicates  very  distinctly,  that  John's  desire  to  see  Joseph, 
was  the  cause  of  Joseph's  going. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  97 


John  wanted  to  see  him. 


Became  is  appropriated  to  this  syllabane  to  express  the  fact 
that  what  is  predicated  of  John,  was  the  cause  why  Joseph  went. 

2.  [John  wanted  to  see  Joseph,]  (therefore  Joseph  went 
to  him.)     Therefore. 

Here,  it  is  predicated  of  Joseph,  that  he  went  to  John.  And 
therefore  is  appropriated  to  the  syllabane  which  makes  this  predi- 
cate, to  express  what  this  predicate  was  in  respect  to  that  made 
of  John  in  the  super  syllabane.  Therefore  indicates,  that  the  predicate 
made  of  Joseph  by  the  syllabane  to  which  it,  therefore,  is  appro- 
priated, was  an  effect,  a  consequence,  flowing  from  the  predicate 
made  of  John  in  the  super  syllabane. 


6.    THE  ADJECTIVE   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  large  class  of  uncordictive  branch  words,  applicable 
both  to  cordictive,  and  uncordictive  nouns,  and  employed 
merely  to  suggest,  or  fully  to  express,  something  which  the 
nouns  do  not  include ;  as,  What  man  came  ?  Any  man,  No 
man,  John's  man,  Brewers'  yeast,  Murray's  Grammar,  Boy's 


The  general  meaning  of  adjectives  may  be  acquired  to 
some  extent,  from  the  following 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Adjectives  are  employed, 

1.  What  man  will  come  ? 

1.  [To  allude  to  particularity.']       2.   Which  man  shall  I  call? 

3.  Which  one  went  ? 

«  r_  n  1.  Any  man  may  come. 

2.  [To  express  vagueness.  J  0  *  .X 

L        F  *  J  2.  Some  one  will  come. 

1.  All  men  will  not  come. 
8.  [To  express  totality."}  2.  The  wliole  company  came. 

3.  They  all  will  come. 


aa 


QLARSrOLOOy. 


4.  [7b  express  negation.'] 

5.  [7b  express  particularity.] 

6.  [  7b  express  severalty.  ] 
7*.  [7b  express  number.] 
H.  [7b  express  identity.] 


b.  [To  express  state.] 


10.  [7b  express  quality.] 


11.  [7b  express  the  2/^.] 


1 .  JVb  man  will  come. 

2.  iVo  one  will  eome. 

3.  Neither  man  will  come. 

1.  Certain  men  will  come. 

2.  Particular  ones  have  come. 

1.  £bc&  man  will  come. 

2.  j&Wy  one  will  come. 

3.  Either  man  may  go. 

4.  Neither  man  will  come. 

1.  One  man  will  come. 

2.  >Sfcr  men  will  come. 

1.  Same  men. 

2.  Very  ones. 

3.  Identical  man. 

4.  Aforesaid  man. 

1 .  WW/  men  can  come. 

2.  <Sfcjfc  men  cannot  come. 

3.  Broken  dishes. 

4.  Whole  dishes. 

5.  They  are  anxious. 
G.  Thou  art  rich. 

7.  Ye  are  angry. 

1.  Large  men  will  come. 

2.  Strong  men  will  come. 

3.  Tall  ones  will  come. 

4.  Short  ones  will  come. 

1.  Carving  knife, 

2.  Writing  desk. 

3.  *S7<w  leather. 

4.  Tea  pot. 

5.  TWA  pick. 

6.  7?«2w  strop, 

7.  Bake  pan. 

8.  Cheese  press. 

9.  Ifiw*  howl. 


CLASSIOLUOY.  <K* 

12.  [To  indicate  that    the  thing* 

mentioned,    are    not    well    1.  A  Mian  Will  come. 
known,  or  that  they  are  not    2.  An  Indian  will  come. 
distinguished  from  others  by    3     4  man  0f  that  company. 
distinctive  circumstances.  ] 
Here  i  indicates  that  the  man  who  will  coine,  in  not  distinguished  from  the  other 
aaen  of  the  company  by  any  dintinctiyc  circumstances. 

1.  The  man  icho  stands  tliere. 

13.  [To  indicate  either   that    the    %   ^  gun  hag  risen 

things  mentioned,  arc  welt  _        ..         .  ,  , 

knoin,  or  that  they  are  dis-  3.    The    llOll    IS   a    noble    am- 
tinguished  from  all  other  nial. 

tAtn^t  0/  *Ac  «rw  foW  ty  4.  T^Aow  art  the  man. 

distinctive     circumstances,  5     ^/ie    legislature    of   Penu- 

e^pn»>«l  or  implied.  ]  8ylVania,  is  in  session. 


COMMENT?. 

1.   The  man  who  stands  yonder,  will  come. 
The  clause,  who  stands  yonder,  expresses  the  distinctive  circum- 
stance which  is  indicated  by  the,  in  The  man,  &c. 

2.    The  sun  has  risen. 
Here,  the  indicates  that  the  sun  is  well  known.    The  sun.    What 
sun?     The  well  known  sun  which  is  the  great  source  of  heat,  and 
light. 

4.    The  lion  is  noble. 
Here,  too,  the  indicates  that  the  lion  is  well  known. 

4.  Thou  art  the  man. 

What  man  ?  The  man  that  had  been  described  by  Nathan  before  this 
appropriation  of  the  to  the  word,  man. 

**  And  David's  anger  was  greatly  kindled  against  the  man — and 
he  said  to  Nathan,  as  the  Lord  liveth,  The  man  that  hath  done  this 
thing,  shall  surely  die.J' 

*  t&~  "  that  hath  done  this  M/«</." 

5.    The  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  is  now  in  session. 

The  description  to  which  the  points,  is,  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  old  school  grammarians  call  the.  the  definite  article,  "becaus* 
it  ascertains  what  particular  person,  or  thing  is  meant."  The  does  not 
ascertain  the  identity  of  the  object — the  conveys  an  allusion  to  a 
description  which  ascertains  what  thing  is  meant. — (Sec  the  Appeal.} 


*  Tho  fiujccr  is  tho  *nrd,  tfi*,  »hicb  directe  the  ntlenlk'U  ol  1)i»tKI  to  tbo  dewrljv 
HOD—- 'tkal  hath  June  this  tkinoP 


100 


CtASSIOLOGY. 


REMARKS. 

The  nouns  take  adjectives  before,  and  after  them. 

Few  of  the  pronouns  take  adjectives  before  them.  One,  and 
ones  take  adjectives  both  before,  and  after  them ;  asT  a  good  one, 
one  should  be  good,  these  ones  are  good.  They  will  receive  all 
before  it ;  all  they  went.  Others  will  receive  some,  the,  all,  these, 
those,  several,  many,  any,  two,  $c,  before  it;  as,  some  others,  the 
others,  all  others,  several  others,  which  others,  what  others.  But 
these  adjectives  cannot  follow  the  pronoun ;  as,  others  some,  others 
the.  Adjectives  which  come  after  nouns,  or  pronouns,  generally 
express  quality,  state,  number,  or  totality ;  as,  Henry  is  tall,  he  is 
well,  they  all  went,  John  found  them  all  sick,  we  found  them  six  in 
number. 


14.  [  To  express  the  producer.] 


1.  Bakers'  bread. 

2.  Brewers'  yeast. 

3.  Webster's  child. 

4.  Sun's  light. 

5.  Murray's  Grammar. 

6.  Blackstone's  Commentaries. 

7.  Music's  charm. 

8.  Wind's  music. 

9.  Firemen's  difficulties. 


16.  [To  express  numeral  order.] 


1.  Third  man. 

2.  First  class. 

3.  Fourth  pupil. 

4.  Second  class. 


16.  [To  express  the  proprietor.'] 


1.  John's  hat. 

2.  My  glove. 

3.  Your  book. 

4.  Jane's  hand. 

5.  Ladies'  books. 

6.  Eagles'  wings. 


17.  [To  express  the  name.] 


1.  John  Calvin. 

2.  Henry  Clay. 

3.  Jacob  Collamer. 

4.  Reverdy  Johnson. 


CLASMOUXil'. 


101 


18.  [To  express  sex.] 


1.  Man  servant. 

2.  She  bear. 

3.  He  goat. 

4.  Hen  sparrow. 


10.  [To  express  the  till*.] 


1.  Mr.  Tustin. 

2.  3/rs.  Adams. 
8.  Miss  Jones. 

4.  Master  Henry. 


20.  [To  express  titular  rank.] 


1.  Captain  Henry. 

2.  Otoe*  Shields. 

3.  General  Taylor. 

4.  Sergeant  Davis. 

5.  Major  Bliss. 

6.  Viscount  Humphreys. 

7.  Sheriff  Nathans. 

8.  Alderman  Thojnson. 

9.  Squire  Jones. 

10.  Senator  Benton. 

11.  Mayor  Swift. 

12.  Attorney  general. 


21.  [To  express  to  what  a  thing  is 
attached,  as  an  appendage, 
or  apart.] 


1.  Animal  organs 

2.  Horse  hair. 

3.  Cup  handle. 

4.  Thumb  joint. 

5.  Finger  nail. 

6.  Hat  band. 

7.  iVou?  beam. 

8.  Bridle  strap. 

9.  JSoofc  cover. 

10.  Shoe  string. 

11.  Chair  poet. 

12.  Church  bell. 

13.  Bible  leaf. 

14.  iStore  pipe. 

15.  Head  dress. 

1 6.  6W  collar. 

17.  Arec&  collar. 


102  CLASSIOLOGY. 

1.  Sun  beam. 

2.  Moon  light. 

3.  Gaslight. 

4.  Geese  feathers. 

22.  [Tb  express  from  what  some-  5.  Bear  oil. 

Miny  springs.]  6.  /Sect  water. 

7.  Apple  seeds. 

8.  Spring  water. 

9.  jHbrse  hair. 

23.  [7b  express  with  what  a  thing  1.  Hand  saw. 

«  two*.]  2.  -Few*  ball. 

1.  Nasal  sounds. 

2.  Guttural  voices. 

24.  [To  express  by  what  means,   3.   IfcaJ  music. 

or  in  what  vessel  a  thing  is  4.  Pan  cakes. 
produced.]  5.  Artificial  flowers.   [By  art.] 

6.  Ndturalorgans.[Bj  nature.] 

1.  $fcwie  coal. 

25.  ITo  express  something  to  which  2.  ice  water. 

<A«  <A*ny  denoted  by  the  3.  Astral  lamp. 

noun,  m  «miter.]  4.  Oalcened  book-case. 

5.  Ctyster  plant. 

1.  Franklin  stove. 

2.  Daguerreotype  picture. 

26.  [lb  express  the  inventor,  or  3.  Fulton  boat. 

<fo/a*ro».]  4.  Girard  College. 

5.  Justinian  code. 

6.  Smithsonian  Institution. 

1.  Insolent  people. 

27.  {To  express  demeanor.]  2.  Modest  women. 

3.  Braggart  men. 

4.  Affable  manners. 

1.  Present  time. 

28.  [fi>  «rprar  tfww.]  2.  .fWure  period. 

3.  Pas2  days. 

4.  Expired  hours. 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


103 


29.  [To  express  cruelty.] 


30.  [To  express  oppression.'} 


1.  Barbarous  treatment. 

2.  Inhuman  conduct. 

3.  Savage  blows. 

4.  Unfeeling  masters. 

1.  Tyrannical  treatment. 

2.  Oppressive  taxation. 

3.  Unreasonable  demand. 


31.  [To  express  weight.] 


32.  [To  express  function.'] 


33.  [To  express  morality.] 


1.  i/^fa  air, 

2.  Heavy  wood. 

3.  Ponderous  things. 

1.  Consultative  committee. 

2.  Treaty  ministers. 

1.  Good  men. 

2.  Bad  boys. 

3.  «/us6  conduct, 

4.  Right  treatment, 

5.  Proper  course. 

6.  Moral  precepts. 


1.  Boys1  hats. 

2.  fflMp  seminary. 

3.  Horse  shoes. 

4.  Window  glass. 

5.  JBbJ  band. 
34.  [To  express  for  whom,  or  for   6.  Head  dress. 

whaty  a  thing  is  designed.]     7.  /^foe  strings. 

8.  $tove  pipe. 

9.  Parlour  stores. 

10.  Kitchen  tables. 

11.  Cliair  leg. 

12.  >S7ioe  leather. 

{'Note. — Where  the  appendage  is  actually  applied,  the  adjective 
bngs  to  class  21 — but,  where  it  is  merely  designed  to  be  applied, 
the  adjective  belongs  to  class  34.] 

13.  Meat  sauce. 

14.  Parlour  stove. 

15.  Kitchen , chairs. 

16.  Ladies'  Book. 


104 


CLAfcSIOLOUY. 


So.  [To  express  openness.] 


1.  Letters  patent. 

2.  Patent  letters. 

3.  Overt  acts. 

4.  Free  passage. 

5.  Open  doors. 

6.  Public  roads. 

7.  Common  property. 


86.  [To  express  sbnilarity.] 


1.  Like  results. 

2.  Analogous  principles. 

3.  Ilomogcneal  statements. 


37.  [To  express  dissimilarity.'] 


1 .  Different  principles. 

2.  She  is  unlike  him. 

3.  Dissimilar  views. 

4.  Heterogeneal  things. 


38.  [To  express  the  style  of  differ- 
ent writers.] 


1.  Affected  sentences. 

2.  Bombastic  periods. 

3.  Concise  account  of,  &c 

4.  Diffuse  writers. 

5.  Easy  speakers. 

6.  Elegant  sentences. 

7.  Epistolary  style. 

8.  Feeble  language. 

9.  Florid  diction. 

10.  Flowing  periods. 

11.  Harsh  sentences. 

12.  Lofty  style. 

13.  Loose  style. 

14.  Neat  sentence. 

15.  Nervous  language. 

16.  Negligent  style. 

17.  Obscure  periods. 

18.  Perspicuous  style. 

19.  Simple  style. 

20.  Stiff  style. 

21.  Terse  language. 

22.  Tumid  writers. 

23.  Verbose  style. 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


105 


39.  [To  express  prosperity.] 

40.  [To  express  industry.'} 

41.  [To  express  piety. ] 

42.  [To  express  courage.] 

43.  [To  express  beauty.] 

44.  [To  express  pleasantness.] 

45.  [To  express  consistency.] 


46.  [To  express  opposition.] 


1.  Prosperous  voyage. 

2.  Lucky  hit. 

3.  Fortunate  circumstance. 

4.  Successful  efforts. 

1.  Active  man. 

2.  Diligent  pupils. 

3.  Industrious  people. 

4.  Assiduous  students. 

5.  Laborious  man. 

1.  Holy  bible. 

2.  PtVw5  person. 

3.  Devout  man. 

4.  Religious  congregation, 

1.  They  are  fearless. 

2.  You  were  intrepid. 

3.  They  were  undaunted. 

4.  They  were  bold. 

1.  Beautiful  fields. 

2.  i^t?i€  trees. 

3.  Handsome  houses. 

4.  .Pretty  ribands. 

1.  Agreeable  persons. 

2.  Pleasant  walk. 

3.  Pleasing  manners. 

1.  Virtue  is  agreeable  to  Scrip- 

ture. 

2.  His  conduct  was  conform- 

able  to  the  Bible. 

3.  Treatment  which  was  suit- 

able to  his  station. 

1.  Antagonistkal  measures. 

2.  Adverse  views. 

3.  Repugnant  course. 

4.  Opponent  principles. 

5.  Contrary  direction. 

6.  Antithetical  words. 


10G 


CLAtfSIOLOGY. 


47.  [7b  express  opprobrium.] 


48.  [7b  express  optation.] 

49.  [Tb  express  something  in  re- 

spect to  optics.] 


50.  [7b  express  slander."] 


51.  [7b  express  dispersion.] 


52.  [7b  express  inattention.] 


53.  [7b  express  sadness.] 


1.  Contemptuous  conduct. 

2.  Scurrilous  publication. 

3.  Disdainful  airs. 

4.  Despiteful  enemies. 

5.  Haughty  demeanor. 

6.  Scornful  manners. 

1.  Optative  mode. 

2.  Desired  amount. 

1.  Optic  nerve. 

2.  Optic  angle. 

3.  Optic  axis. 

4.  Optic  organ. 

1.  Libellous  paper. 

2.  Defamatory  words. 

3.  Slanderous  reports. 

4.  Calumnious  language. 

1.  Dissipated  clouds. 

2.  Dispersive  measures. 

3.  Scattered  seeds. 

1.  Unmindful  lads. 

2.  Careless  parents. 

3.  Inattentive  pupils. 

4.  Negligent  servants. 

1.  Heavy  hearts. 

2.  Moody  thoughts. 

3.  Sad  feelings. 

4.  Forlorn  man. 

5.  Poor  fellow. 


54.  [7b  express  place.] 


55.  [7b  express  a  want  of  some- 
thing.] 


1.  Inner  feelings. 

2.  Bosom  friend. 

3.  Outside  passengers. 

1.  Hopeless  state. 

2.  Groundless  fears. 

3.  Hatless  man. 

4.  Treeless  field. 

5.  Faithless  people. 

6.  Heartless  child. 


CLASSTOT/WH*. 


G6.  [7b  express  time.} 
67.  [7b  express  verbality.] 

58.  [7b  express  position.] 


69.  [  To  express  a  want  of  culti- 
vation.] 


60.  [To  express  kindred.] 

61.  [7b  express  addition.] 

62.  [  7b  express  aid.  ] 

63.  [?b«r/WM  AaMf.] 

64.  [7b  express  age.] 


65.  [7b  express  privacy.] 


<5G.  [To  express  construction.] 


1.  IF/nte?*  nights. 

2.  2?a/fy  days. 

1.  Verbal  intercourse. 

2.  TftWy  men. 

1.  Mid-heaven  sun. 

2.  i^per  lip. 

3.  Uiider  lip. 

4.  The  above  facts. 

1.  ItifcJ  thoughts. 

2.  i?w/e  manners.    ,_.. 

3.  Crude  ideas. 

1.  Fellow  pilgrim. 

2.  £We  Jones. 

3.  Brother  John. 

1 .  J&rc  snow. 

2.  Additory  matter. 

1.  Auxiliary  society. 

2.  StqyplemeiUal  part. 

1.  Crying  child. 

2.  Kicking  horse. 

1.  Young  man. 

2.  OW  people. 

3.  TVejp  wine. 

4.  OW  rules. 

5.  &afc  bread. 

1.  Private  papers. 

2.  $scre£  matters. 

3.  Latent  principles. 

1.  Straight-bodied  coat. 

2.  £W$e  bridle. 

3.  Three~xided  figure. 

4.  Tico-story  house. 


107 


108 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


C7.  [To  express  feebleness.] 


68.  [To  express  restraint.'] 


).  [To  express  freedom."] 


1.  Relaxed  nerves. 

2.  Weak  nerves. 

3.  Faint  hearts. 

1.  Debentured  goods. 

2.  Restrained  acts. 

3.  Stringent  rules. 

4.  jBow€?  men. 

5.  Confined  air. 

6.  Cramped  genius. 

1.  jFVee  people. 

2.  Uneonfined  air. 

3.  Affable  manners. 

4.  JKify  speaker. 


70.  [tt  oyrw  ife  ^o/nm    j    ^.^  doctrme 

?««%,  or  distinctive  cir-    ^    ^^  ^^ 
cumstance.] 

Note. — Here  the  nouns  express  the  quality,  for  the  doctrine  be- 
longs to  the  Bible,  and  the  form  to  the  book. 

71.  [To  express  that  of  which  the    1.  Brass  metal. 

thing  consists.]  2.  Philadelphia  city. 

1.  Leather  shoes. 

72.  [To  express  the  material  of  2.  Silver  spoons. 

which  a  thing  is  made.]        3.  Gold  ring. 

4.  Silver  watch. 

Note. — 71  differs  from  72:  the  brass  is  the  metal  itself — and 
Philadelphia  is  the  city.  But  the  gold  is  not  the  entire  ring,  nor  is  the 
silver  the  whole  of  the  spoons. 

The  metal  has  nothing  but  brass — the  ring  has  something  more 
than  gold — it  has  form,  and  size. 


73.  [To  express  novelty.] 


74.  [To  express  fulness.] 


1.  Rare  wit. 

2.  Singular  events. 

3.  Unusual  flocks. 

4.  Strange  things. 

1.  Plenary  expression. 

2.  Replete  monos. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  109 

75.  [7b  express  emptiness.]  *'  ^"P^  ^ands. 
L        r          r         J            2.  Vacant  heads. 

1.  Many  books. 

76.  [7b  express  an  indefinite  num-   2.  Several  apples. 

ber.]  3.  Few  persons. 

4.  J&we  books. 

77.  [7b  express  an  indefinite  quan-    1.  Much  good. 

<»<y.]  2.  Zitefe  harm. 

1.  Twice-told  tales. 

78.  [7b  egress  repetition.]  2.  Duplicate  papers. 

3.  Reiterated  crimes. 

79.  [7b  <?rpr<w»  the  place  of  birth,    1.  American  soldiers. 

residence,  <$r.]  2.  Philadelphia  firemen. 

1.  French  silks. 

80.  [7b  Mpi*  the  country   in    \.  ^lish  waf' 

which  a  thing  is  made.]        $'  **°\  Cracke^ 

4.  Manchester  calicoes. 

5.  Leghorn  hats. 

81.  [Toexpressthecity, or  country,   \  **™ ^erchmte. 

mwhichaperson,orathiny  *'  ™^¥™  lawyers. 
...  i^  o.  iVew  Jrora  market. 

r  4.  Baltimore  churches. 

82.  [2b  express  presence,  and  near-   1.  77m  knife. 

««*•]  2.  T'Aese  pens. 

83.  [7b  express  presence,  but  dis-    \,  That  book. 

fcroce/roro.]  2.  TViose  books. 


84.  [7b  express  locality.  ] 


85.  [7b  express  occupation.] 


1.  Yonder  apple. 

2.  Inside  door. 

3.  Tljp  piece. 

4.  Bottom  piece. 

1.  Doctor  Jones. 

2.  Lawyer  James. 
10 


^|q  CLASSIOLOGY. 

stood.}  '       9 

1.  Ogle  wagons. 

87.  [»  ^  %  &  »-•]    I  ^TtH  wagon, 

1.  Zem-  watches. 

88.  [7b  express  a  prominent  dis-    ^    fen-jewelled  Vf&tch. 

tinctive  part  of  a  thing.]       g    Steam  ship. 

1.  Apple  trees. 

89  [To  express  the  kind  of  fruit  2.  Straicberry  vines. 
8y'  L      .  ;,  ,  ,  3.  Ckmarf  bushes. 

*•**;?  4.  67*em/  trees. 

90  [To  express  how  long  the  means    1.  Eight-day  clocks. 
'  .     JL*.  6.  #«***]        2.  0»e<fay  clocks. 

1.  Bulbous  roots. 
91.  [7b  exprm  ft  *ftap«  of  a   ^   Egg-shaped  urchin, 
tfwtf.]  3.  0&fo«#  figures. 


1.  Another  man. 
92.  [To  «xpr«»  anotow  rtw^-J       2.  Otfier  people. 


3.  Oblong  figures. 

1.  Another  man. 

2.  Otfier  people. 

1.  Chaotic  state. 


1.     1//WW'1'   raw*»~« 

93.  [7b  express  confusion  of  part*.]  2.  Confused  masses. 

I.  Oriental  manners. 

1.  J^maZ  step. 

95.  [To  express  termination.]  ^    Dernier  resort. 

1.  Cantering  &&- 

96.  [7b  express  what  gait.]  ^   Pacing  horse. 

1.  Thin  paper. 
i   n  2.  Slender  rods. 

97.  [7b  «rpre«  *■*.]  J    j^,  wxm&. 


CLASS10LOGY.  Ill 

1.  Gloomy  times. 

98.  [To  express  tenebrosity.]  2.  Tenebrious  tokens. 

3.  Sad  affair. 

1.  Principal  witness. 

99.  [To  express  degree  of  import-    2.   Chief  musician. 

ance.]  3.  Secondary  matters. 

4.  Minor  importance. 

-^  rm  £ ,   n  1.  Treacherous  man. 

100.  [To  *-.*£*]  2    JWriton*.  kings. 


REMARKS. 

Extensive  as  is  this  illustration  of  the  significant  powers  of  the 
adjective,  it  is  a  mere  commencement  of  a  development  of  the  great 
variety  of  things,  facts,  and  circumstances  of  which  adjectives  are 
expressive.  This  illustration,  though  limited,  is  sufficient  to  give 
the  learner  a  general  idea  of  the  significant  powers  of  the  words 
which  the  old  grammars  attempt  to  define  by  saying  that, 

"  An  adjective  is  a  part  of  speech  which  is  added  to  nouns  to 
express  their  quality !" 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  a  noun? 

2.  What  is  &  pronoun? 

3.  What  is  a  verb? 

4.  What  is  &  preposition? 

5.  What  is  a  conjunction  ? 

6.  What  is  an  adjective? 

7.  Are  adjectives  copious,  or  limited  in  their  significant  powers  ? 


A  Specimen  of  Construing  the  Adjective. 

"  Black's  Sarsaparilla  Blood  Pills." 

Black's,  is  an  adjective,  employed  here  to  express  the  pro- 
ducer of  the  pills.     [Page  94.] 

Sarsaparilla,  is  an  adjective,  employed  to  express  the  material  of 
which  the  pills  are  made.     [Page  100.] 

Blood,  is  an  adjective,  employed  to  express  the  use  of  the 

pills.     [Page  93.  J 

nils,  is  a  noun.     [Page  S4.] 


112  CLASS10L00Y. 

EXERCISES, 
To  be  construed  exactly  according  to  the  preceding  Specimen. 

1.  The  stove  pipe  of  the  Franklin  stove  is  old. 

2.  Which  man  came  ? 

3.  No  man  servant  answered. 

4.  All  these  head  dresses  are  new. 

5.  Yonder  is  a  church  bell. 

6.  The  bridle  strap  is  on  the  plough  beam. 

7.  Have  you  used  your  new  razor  strop  ? 

8.  John  Foster  saw  James  Johnson? 

9.  Does  Miss  Jane  Boston  like  oyster  plant  ? 

10.  Was  that  lad  insolent  ? 

11.  All  ladies  are  modest. 

12.  I  like  ice  water  in  the  summer  season. 

13.  Who  has  ever  seen  a  sun  beam  by  moon  light? 

14.  Gas  light,  Astral  lamp. 

15.  Vocal  music,  Girard  College,  Fulton  steamboat. 

16.  William  Baker  is  attorney  general. 

17.  A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard. 

18.  Captain  Henry  saw  Colonel  Shields. 

19.  Mayor  Barker  fell  in  with  Senator  Webster. 

20.  Mr.  Collamer  is  now  Postmaster  General. 

21.  These  children  saw  two  she  bears. 

22.  The  third  boy  in  the  fourth  class  was  transferred. 

23.  People  generally  like  bakers'  bread. 

24.  They  got  some  brewer s'  yeast. 

25.  My  small  hats  are  all  wool  hats. 

26.  John's  new  hat  is  a  fur  hat. 

27.  Her  gloves  are  kid  gloves. 

28.  John  Calvin  preached  Bible  doctrine. 

29.  Henry  Clay  may  soon  be  Senator  Clay. 

30.  My  young  children  understand  Murray's  Grammar. 

31.  John's  oldest  son  was  killed  in  the  Mexican  war. 

32.  Have  you  read  our,  "Ladies'  Book?" 

33.  Samuel  Jones  hit  that  eagle  with  his  double-barrel  gun. 

34.  Baron  Swedenburg  was  a  Swede  man. 

35.  Viscount  Johnson  was  an  English  man. 

36.  David  Brewster  has  a  cart  horse,  carriage  horse,  sad- 

dle horse,  and  a  race  horse. 


•  LAJJ810LO0T.  113 


LESSON  II. 
2.    THE  PRONOUN  DENOMINATION 

Is  a  small  class  of  extra  trunk  words  which,  in  general, 
have  distinctive  powers  within  themselves,*  but  derive  their 
meaning  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  or  from  the  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, verbs,  adjectives,  clauses,  and  sentences,  with  which  they 
are  made  synonymous  by  application;  as;  I,  we,  it,  which, 
that,  lumself. 

*  Distinctive  powtrs  are  the  means  of  distinguishing  the  genders ;  as,  he,  site — 
plurality  from  unity;  as,  tliou,  ye  ;  I,  we — the  par-e-theme  from  the  pros-o-theme, 
and  the  panta-theme  from  the  other  two  themes;  as  /,  me,  us,  we — par-e-themes ; 
thou,  thee,  ye,  you — pros-o-themes ;  he,  she,  it,  book — panta-themes. 

All  the  things,  mentioned,  or  implied,  in  a  sentence,  fall  under  two  general  de- 
nominations, viz. : — 

Prosochists,  and 
Tfiemes.   [objects.] 

1.  Prnsochist  is  compounded  of  the  Greek,  prosocheia,  attention,  and  ist,  one  who 
applies  in  practice  what  is  mentioned  in  the  principal  part  of  the  word  of  which  ist 
is  a  suffix. 

The  prosochist  is  that  person  whom  the  noun  itself  designates  by  means  of  an 
audient  intonation,  an  audient  indication,  or  an  audient  comma,  as  the  particular 
individual  to  whose  notice  the  par-e-theme  presents  the  different  objects  mentioned, 
or  implied,  in  the  sentence ;  as,  Master,  I  hare  brought  unto  thee  my  son.  (Master.) 

2.  Theme  is  made  from  the  Greek,  thema  ;  and,  as  thema  is  made  from  tit/temi,  to 
sit,  or  place,  theme  may  properly  be  defined  to  mean  whatever  is  presented  to  the 
notice,  of  a  person.  In  this  system  of  grammar,  theme  means  anything  which  is  pre- 
sented to  the  notice  of  the  prosochist ;  as,  Master,  1  have  brought  my  son  unto 
thee.  i  [/,  son,  thee.] 

The  themes  presented  to  the  notice  of  the  prosochist,  are  divided  into 

1.  Par-e-theme, 

2.  Pros-o-Uieme,  and 
8.  Pan4a-theme. 

1.  PAR-E-THEME. 

The  par-erUume  is  the  person  who  is  designated,  or  distinguished,  by  the  pro- 
noun, as  the  particular  individual  who  presents  the  different  themes  in  the  sen- 
tence, to  the  notice  of  the  prosochist :  as, 

1.  Master,  /have  brought  unto  thee  my  son  which  hath  a  dumb 
spirit.     (/.) 

2.  Master,  my  son  has  been  brought  unto  thee  by  me.     (Me.) 
[The  prefix  part  of  par-e-theme,  is  made  from  the  Greek,  par-e-cho,  to  exhibit.] 

2.  PROS-OTIIEME. 

The  pros-o4heme  is  the  prosochist  presented  to  his  own  notice,  which  is  always 

done  by  means  of  a  pronoun ;  as, 

Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son.     (Thee.) 
[The  prefix  part  of  pros-o-theme,  Is  the  first  part  of  prosochist,  and  signifies,  in 

this  abridged  state,  that  the  pros-o-theme  is  made  out  of  the  prosocfiist.] 

Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee,  my  son.     (Thee.) 
Thcc  ia  not  used  for  the  purpose  of  addressing  the  Muster,  the  second  time :  thee 
10* 


114  CLASSIOLOGY. 


nXUSTRATIOX  OP  THE  DEFIJUTIOS  OF  THE  PB0N0UW. 

1.  "Richard  is  himself  again." 
Here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  himself  is  made  to  mean  the 
usual,  or  natural  state  of  Richard. 

2.  James,  I  am  glad  to  see  that  thou  hast  come  to  thyself  . 

Here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  thyself  is  made  to  mean  the 
usual  condition,  or  common  state  of  mind,  or  temper,  of  James. 

3.  I  have  gained  much  strength  within  a  few  days — I  think 

that  I  shall  soon  be  myself  again. 

Here,  myself  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  means  the  degree  of 
strength  usually  possessed  by  me. 

4.  James  is  now  in  a  fit  of  madness — but  he  will  soon  come 

to  himself 

Here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  himself  means  the  state  of  good 
nature,  or  calmness,  common,  or  natural,  to  James. 

5.  Nathaniel,  I  am  glad  to  find  thee  sober :  thou  art  now 

thyself 

Here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  thyself  means  identity  of  prior 
character. 

6.  John,  I  myself  will  attend. 
That  is,  I,  the  person  who  speaks  to  you,  will  attend.      [Myself 
is  synonymous  with  the  syllabane,  the  person  who  speaks  to  you.'} 


is  used  by  the  par-e4heme,  to  call  the  attention  of  the  Master  to  himself  as  the  per- 
son to  whom  the  father  had  brought  the  son. 

3.   PANTA-THEME. 

The  panta-thetne  is  an  object  which  is  presented  to  the  prosochist  in  no  light,  in 
no  character,  except  that  of  a  theme  ;  as, 

Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son  which  hath  a  dumb 
spirit.     (Son,  which,  spirit.)     \Panta,  all.] 

The  panta-tJieme  is  all  theme.  In  the  par-e-theme,  there  is  a  presenter — an  cxJiu 
biter:  in  the  pros-o-tJieme,  there  is  si  prosochist — an  attentionist.  Bat,  in  the  panta- 
theme,  there  is  nothing  but  a  theme  :  hence,  whatever  is  presented  to  the  prosochist, 
as  a  mere  theme,  is  a  panta-theme ;  as, 

Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son  which  hath  a  dumb 
spirit. 

The  eon  and  the  spirit  exhibit  nothing  to  the  Master,  the  prosochist  of  the  sen- 
tence. Neither  the  son  nor  the  spirit  is  in  any  way,  an  attentionist ;  indeed,  neither 
is  any  thing  but  a  theme. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  1 J  5 

7.  They  have  Christ  himself  for  their  captain. 
Here,  himself,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  is  ft  description  of 
the  Christ  whom  they  have  as  their  captain. 

They  have  Christ  himself  for  their  captain. 
That  is,  they  have  Christ,  the  well  known  Saviour  of  men,  for 
their  captain. 

The  phrase,  Christ  himself,  is  nearly  synonymous  with,  The 
Christ. 

8.  The  apostles  themselves  were  endowed  with  miraculous 
powers. 
The  idea  expressed  by  themselves,  is  this — even  those  whom  Christ 
commissioned,  had  the  same  miracle  working  power  xchich  Christ  him- 
self possessed. 

9.  Which  Christ  himself  possessed. 
Here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  himself  means  what  is  ex- 
pressed in  these  words —  Who  is  God. 

Which  Christ  who  is  God,  possessed. 

10.  We  saw  the  father  himself 

Here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  pronoun,  himself,  means 
what  is  expressed  by  these  words — ichose  power  over  the  child  is 
much  greater  than  that  of  any  other  person. 

We  saw  the  father  whose  power  over  the  child,  is  far  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  person. 

11.  The  captain  himself  was  lost. 

Here,  himself,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  means  what  is  ex- 
pressed in  these  words — the  danger  in  which  tee  were  placed,  was 
almost  unexampled,  since,  the  captain  whose  means  of  protection  are  very 
superior,  was  lost. 

12.  On  this  occasion,  the  hills  themselves  trembled. 

That  is,  says  the  pronoun,  themselves,  the  power  which  was  exerted, 
must  have  been  great  indeed,  since  the  hills  which  nature  has  so  firmly 
placed  in  the  earthy  trembled  before  it. 

13.  Said  the  preacher  at  the  grave  side,  This  is  the  way  in 
which  all  the  living  must  go ;  I  mi/self  must  soon  follow. 
That  is,  I,  the  man  who  is  now  in  perfect  health,  arid  who  is  speaking 
on  this  solemn  occasion,  must  soon  follow. 

14.  /  Paul  myself  beseech  you. 
Here,  /  is  used  in  addition  to  Paul;  hence  it  is  an  extra  word. 


116  ^  CT,AK8I0L0<iY. 

This  man  was  generally  distinguished  by  the  word  "  raid,"  his 
ordinary  name.  But  as  he  desired  to  say  to  the  Corinthians  that 
the  Paul  here  mentioned,  was  the  very  one  who  wrote  to  them,  he 
employed  the  extra,  I.  Paid,  the  ordinary  name,  would  distin- 
guish him  as  a  man,  but  not  as  the  par-e-theme ;  hence,  he  employs 
the  pronoun,  /. 

/  is  a  trunk  word — it  is  a  foundation  part  in  the  frame  work  of 
the  mono. 

[/(who  arn)  (Paul,)  heseecli  you.] 
The  word,  I,  although  in  possession  of  a  distinctive  power  pecu- 
liar to  itself,  derives  its  application  to  Paul,  from  the  noun,  Paul. 

I  Paul. 
Here,  /,  and  Paul  mean  the  same  person ;  hence  /  is  made 
synonymous  with  Paul.  The  word  Paul,  however,  presents  this 
individual  as  the  well  known  apostle  to  the  Gentiles ;  but  /  pre- 
sents him  as  the  par-e-theme  in  a  certain  epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians. 

14.  I  Paul  myself  beseech  you. 
You,  too,  is  an  extra  trunk  word.  By  application,  you  is  made 
synonymous  with  the  noun,  Corinthians,  the  ordinary  name  of  the 
people  to  whom  Paul  wrote  this  certain  epistle.  You,  and  Corin- 
thians mean  the  same  people.  But,  while  the  word,  Corinthians, 
would  present  these  people  to  the  mind  of  the  reader  as  the  panta- 
theme,  the  pronoun,  you,  presents  them  as  the  prosochist.  [Atten- 
tionist.] 

[Although  I  have  dismissed  the  pronouns  which  end  in 
self,  I  must  embrace  the  opportunity  which  this  sentence 
affords  of  saying  something  on  the  extra,  myself.] 

I  Paul  myself  beseech  you. 

Was  [not  were]  this  sentence  deprived  of  its  extras,  it  would 
read  as  follows  : — 

Paul  beseeches  Corinthians. 

1.  By  /,  it  is  indicated  that  the  very  Paul  here  meant,  is  the 
par-e-theme,  [the  exhibiter.]     /Paul. 

2.  By  myself,  it  is  indicated  who  this  Paul  is,  or  ivho  I  am. 

I  Paul  myself  beseech  you. 
That  is,  I  Paul,  your  well  tried  friend,  beseech  you. 
Hence,  myself  means,  your  well  tried  friend. 

15.  Master,  /  have  brought  my  son  unto  thee. 
The  relation  of  the  things  which  are  introduced  into  a  sentence 
either  by  direct  expression,  or  by  obvious  implication,  must  secure 
the  admiration  of  all.     Nothing  is  more  simple  than  this  speech 


CLASSIOLOGT.  117 

relation;  yet  nothing  is  more  philosophic:  and,  although  the 
whole  lies  within  the  grasp  of  a  mere  child,  Grammar  makers  do 
not  understand  it. 

In  an  English  Grammar,  compiled  by  Goold  Brown,  I  find  the 
following  sentence : — 

"  The  distinction  of  persons,  is  founded  on  the  different 
relations  which  the  objects  mentioned,  bear  to  the  discourse 
itself." 

"  Moses  smote  the  rock  with  his  rod." 

I  should  be  much  pleased  to  learn  what  relation  Moses,  the  rock, 
and  the  rod  bear  to  this  sentence ! 

That  the  former  of  a  sentence  bears  a  relation  to  it,  is  obvious — - 
and,  perhaps,  in  vocal  instances,  the  person  also  to  whom  the  sen- 
tence is  addressed,  bears  a  relation  to  the  sentence;  as, 

Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  Master  bore  an  audience  relation  to  this 
sentence  when  it  was  addressed  to  him.  Nor  is  it  at  all  difficult 
to  see  that  the  father,  who  styles  himself,  /,  bore  a  formative  rela- 
tion to  this  sentence  when  he  addressed  it  to  the  Master.  But  it 
requires  more  penetration  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  most  persons,  to 
see  what  possible  relation  the  son  bore  to  this  sentence !  The  son 
did  not  form  the  sentence — nor  is  there  any  intimation  in  it,  that 
he  gave  audience  to  it. 

"  Moses  smote  the  rock  with  his  rod." 

What  possible  relation  do  Moses,  the  rock,  and  the  rod  bear  to 
this  sentence  ? 

Moses  had  been  dead  years  before  the  sentence  was  formed.  I 
have  just  constructed  the  sentence.  And  is  it  possible,  that  Moses, 
who  departed  this  life  years,  yea,  centuries,  ago,  has  found  his 
way  back  from  mother  dust,  and,  in  some  mysterious  manner, 
attached  himself  to  this  proposition  ? 

Whether  the  rock  from  which  Moses  brought  the  copious  stream, 
has  decayed  out  of  being,  I  will  not  pretend  to  say ;  but  even  if  it 
is  yet  in  existence,  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  to  have  left  its  ter- 
rene bed  for  a  place  in  this  verbal  frame-work. 

I  will  not  pretend  that  the  rod,  employed  by  Moses  in  perform- 
ing this  standing  miracle,  was  perishable.  But,  if  it  has  found  its 
way  from  the  streaming  rock  into  this  sentence  which  I  have  just 
formed,  it  is  obvious  that  the  days  of  miracles,  are  not  yet  over. 

The  distinction  of  persons,  is  not  founded  upon  relation  of  any 
kind,  but  upon  an  ancient  dramatic  practice  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Of  this  practice,  and  the  distinction  of  the  three  per- 
sons in  the  old  Grammars,  founded  upon  it,  I  speak  in  my  ArrEAL. 

Although  the  distinction  of  persons,  could  have  been  founded 
upon  what  may  be  called  the  speech  relation  which  one  thing  bears 
to  another,  it  never  could  have  been  founded  upon  any  relation 


118  CLASSIOLOGY. 

which  the  things  mentioned  in  a  sentence,  bear  to  the  sentence  it- 
self. 

The  speech  relation  on  which  the  distinction  of  persons,  could 
have  been  founded,  is  so  simple  that  it  is  illustrated  by  almost 
every  business  transaction  among  men.  For  instance,  take  a 
scene  in  buying,  and  selling  dry  goods. 

1.  There  are  goods  to  be  sliown. 

2.  There  is  a  person  to  examine  them — to  give  attention 
to  them. 

3.  There  is  a  person  to  show  them. 

Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son. 

1.  The  Master  is  called  on  to  give  attention  tome.  Master,  look 
on  me.  Master,  /,  have  done  so  and  80.  /,  then,  am  the  first 
theme,  the  first  object,  the  first  article  of  goods  to  which  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Master,  is  directed :   I  show  myself  first. 

2.  The  Master  is  next  directed  to  look  upon  himself. 

Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee. 

That  is,  Master,  look  on  me  as  the  bringer,  and  on  thyself  as  the 
person  to  whom  I  bring.  Now,  as  the  Master  directs  his  atten- 
tion to  me,  I  bear  an  objective  relation,  not  to  the  sentence,  but  the 
Master  himself.  And,  as  he  turns  his  attention  to  himself  as  the 
person  to  whom  I  bring  the  son,  he  bears  an  objective  relation  to 
himself :  he  becomes  the  theme,  or  object  of  his  own  attention. 

Having  called  the  attention  of  the  Master  to  myself  as  the  bringer, 
and  to  himself  as  the  person  to  whom  I  had  brought,  I  next  ex- 
hibit to  him  the  son  as  the  person  whom  I  brought.  Hence  the 
son  becomes  an  object,  or  a  theme  of  the  Master's  attention,  or 
notice. 

The  general  relation  of  the  Master  to  me,  himself,  and  the  son, 
is  that  of  an  examiner — of  an  attentionist.  Hence  he  is  denominated 
the  prosochist — the  attentionist.  And,  as  every  thing  to  which  he 
gives  attention,  must  bear  an  objective,  a  themative,  relation  to  him, 
/,  himself,  and  the  son,  are  objects,  or  themes  of  his  notice. 

Wherever  speech  is,  there  are  these  four  relations,  viz. : — 

1.  The  Prosochistic — Master } 

2.  The  Par-e-themic — Iy 

3.  The  Pros-o-themic — thee, 

4.  The  Panta-themk — son. 

No  sentence  can  be  formed  without  a  prosochist ;  nor  can  any 
sentence  be  constructed  without  a  par-e-theme. 

These  characters,  however,  are  not  always  mentioned.  For  in- 
stance : — 

I  Paul  beseech  you. 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


119 


Here,  the  prosochist  is  not  mentioned ;  but  as  the  sentence  is 
addressed  to  somebody,  the  prosochist  must  exist  in  idea ;  as, 

Corinthians,  I  Paul  beseech  you. 

In  the  following,  the  prosochist  is  not  named  : — 

,  I  have  brought  my  son  unto  thee. 

In  the  following,  the  par-c-theme  is  not  expressed : — 

Master,  this  son  has  been  brought  unto  thee, . 


In  the  following,  the  implied  par-e-theme  is  expressed : — 
Master,  this  son  has  been  brought  unto  thee  by  me. 

[See  the  Appeal,  on  Person.'] 


A  DIAGRAMIC  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  FOUR  SPEECH  RELATIONS 
WHICH  THE  THINGS  MENTIONED,  OR  IMPLIED  IN  A  SENTENCE, 
BEAR   TO   EACH    OTHER. 


thou 
thee 


P 


120  CLASSIOLOGY. 

16.  "It  rains." 

It  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  made  synonymous  with  the  noun, 
rain,  by  application. 

I  am  aware  that  grammarians,  in  general,  say  that  it  is  a  state 
of  things  which  rains !  A  state  of  things  dropping  down  upon  our 
heads,  out  of  the  clouds,  would  certainly  be  a  singular  state  of 
things ! 

But  what  rains?  That  is,  what  falls  down  out  of  the  clouds  ? 
Why,  rain,  which  is  denned  to  be  falling  drops  of  water.  The  rain, 
then,  rains.  That  is,  the  falling  drops  of  water  come  down  out 
of  the  clouds. 

The  verb,  rains,  gives  the  pronoun,  it,  an  application  to  the  rain 
or  water  which  rains  from  the  clouds.  The  pronoun,  it,  is  used 
because  it  is  more  pleasing  to  the  ear  to  say,  It  rains,  than  it  is  to 
say,  Rain  rains. 

17.  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun. 

Here,  it  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with 
the  clause,  to  see  the  sun,  by  application. 

"  To  see  the  sitn,"  expresses  the  ideas  clearly.  But  to  give  the 
sentence  a  more  pleasing  turn,  the  same  ideas  have  an  extra  ex- 
pression through  the  agency  of  the  pronoun,  it.  If  it  should  be 
omitted,  the  sentence  would  assume  the  following  form : 

To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

This  form  of  the  sentence  is  not  quite  so  pleasing  to  the  ear  as 
the  following: — 

It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun. 

Besides,  by  the  use  of  it,  the  writer  is  enabled  to  predict  the  intro- 
duction of  his  main  idea,  which  prepares  the  reader  to  receive  it. 

It  is  pleasant. 

Here,  the  reader  is  informed  that  there  is  something  which  is 
pleasant ;  hence  he  is  thrown  into  a  state  of  expectation,  and  atten- 
tion. This  something  which  is  pleasant,  cannot  be  apprehended 
till  the  reader  arrives  at  the  clause  which  gives  this  extra  word,  it, 
a  distinct  meaning.  And,  as  the  syllabane,  to  see  the  sun,  gives 
the  word,  it,  its  own  meaning,  it  and  to  see  the  sun,  are  made  synony- 
mous by  application. 

18.  It  rains  very  fast.     I  know  it. 

Here,  it  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with 
the  entire  sentence,  It  rains  very  fast,  by  application. 

It  rains  very  fast.     I  know  it. 

As  the  samo  idea  which  is  expressed  by  it  in  the  second  sentence, 


CLASSIOLOGY.  121 

is  expressed  by  the  first  sentence,  it,  in  the  second  sentence,  is  an 
extra  word. 

19.   Who,  then,  can  be  saved  ? 

Here,  who,  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with 
the  syllabane,  what  person,  by  application. 

20.  It  is  John  who  tore  this  book. 

Here,  it  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with 
the  syllabane,  the  person,  by  application. 

Who  tore  this  book  ? 

The  person  is  John. 

It  is  John  who  tore  this  book. 

Who  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with  John, 
by  application. 

21.  It  is  they  who  have  done  this  mischief. 

Here,  it  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with 
the  syllabane,  the  doer,  by  application. 

Who  has  done  this  mischief? 

The  doer  is  they. 

The  idea  is  that  the  mischief  has  been  done  by  the  concurrent 
action  of  several  persons ;  and  that  these  associated  individuals 
constitute  the  doer  of  the  mischief:  hence,  it  may  be  used  with 
perfect  propriety. 

They  is  fin  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with  the 
syllabane,  these  persons. 

It  is  they  who  have  done  this  mischief. 
(The  doer  of  this  mischief,  is  [not  are]  these  persons.) 

Who  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with  the]/, 
by  application.  And,  83  they  is  made  synonymous  with  persons,  by 
application,  who,  virtually,  though  not  constructively,  is  synony- 
mous with  peraons. 


22.  It  is  said  tJiat  the  Apostles  were  illiterate  men. 


Here,  it  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with 
the  clause,  the  Apostles  were  illiterate  men,  by  application. 

That  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with  the 
clause,  the  Apostles  were  illiterate  men,  by  application. 

This  construction  is  very  common,  and  perfectly  proper.  The 
use  of  that  seems  to  indicate  that  the  writer  who  obviously  under- 
takes to  prepare  the  miud  of  the  reader  for  the  main  idea  in  the 
*      11 


122  CLASSIOLOOY. 

proposition,  becomes  apprehensive  that  the  reader  begins  to  in- 
quire in  his  own  mind,  well,  what  is  tmd  t 

It  is  said. 

But  what  is  said? 

To  answer  this  question  which  the  writer  presumes  exists  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader,  the  writer  points  toward,  or  points  out,  by  the 
use  of  the  extra,  that,  what  is  said. 

It  is  said — well,  but  what  is  said?   Why,  that  which  lies 
along  there  j  do  you  see  it  ? 

Here  it  is — J^*  the  Apostles  were  illiterate  men. 
It  is  said  that  the  Apostles  were  illiterate  men. 

[That,  in  this,  and  similar  situations,  is  called  a  conjunction,  by 
some,  by  others,  an  adjective.  Yet  it  is  neither  a  conjunction,  nor 
an  adjective y  but  a  pronoun.] 

23.  John  sold  me  an  ox,  which  his  father  did  not  wish  him 

to  do. 

Here,  which  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous 
with  the  verb,  sold,  by  application. 

24.  That,  John  sold  me  an  ox,  ichich  his  father  did  not  wish 

him  to  do,  is  true. 

Here,  that  is  an  extra  trunk  word,  and  is  made  synonymous  with 
the  syllabane,  John  sold  me  an  ox,  which  his  father  did  not  wish  him 
to  do,  by  application. 

25.   You  say  the  tree  is  green,  which  he  clearly  denies. 

Here,  which,  is  a  pronoun,  and  is  made  synonymous  with  the 
adjfciive,  green,  by  application. 

If  the  preceding  illustration  of  the  use  of  pronouns,  gives 
the  true  character  of  this  denomination  of  words,  it  proves 
most  clearly  that  the  old  definition  of  the  pronoun,  is  too 
despicable  for  serious  notice.  Yet,  in  the  AprEAL,  I  have  said 
much  upon  this  definition  ;  and,  erroneous  as  the  old  defini- 
tion is,  I  must  press  the  adult  learner  of  English  Grammar, 
to  examine  with  care  what  is  there  said  upon  the  pronouns 
as  treated  of  by  the  old  school  grammarians. 


CLASSIOLWY. 


123 


THE    WORDS    OF   THE  PRONOUN  DENOMINATION. 


I 

Us 

Yourselves 

One 

Wc 

Thee 

Himself 

Ones 

Thou 

Him 

Herself 

Others 

Ye 

Her 

Themselves 

Which 

He 

Them 

Oneself 

As 

She 

Whom 

Itself 

That 

They 

Whomsoever 

Onc-another 

This 

Who 

Myself 

Each-other 

These 

Whoever 

Ourselves 

It 

Those 

Whosoever 
Me 

Thyself 

You 

So 

- 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  a  noun?     [Page  86.] 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  word,  trunk,  under  the  definition  of  the 
noun  denomination? 

3.  What  is  a  pronoun  ?     [Page  80.] 

4.  What  is  the  verb  denomination? 

5.  In  how  many  capacities  does  resembles  act  in  this  sentence  ? 

John  resembles  his  mother. 
C.  Why  is  resemble*  a  verb? 

7.  What  four  powers  does  resembles  exert  in  this  sentence  ? 

8.  How  many  powers  does  have  exert  in  the  seventh  sentence 
under  the  definition  of  a  verb  ? 

9.  What  three  powers  does  will  exert  in  the  second  sentence 
under  the  definition  of  a  verb  ? 

"John  being  wise,  we  took  his  advice." 

10.  How  many  of  the  four  verb  powers  does  being  exert  here? 

11.  How  many  of  the  four  does  took  exert  ? 

12.  Is  a  verb  cordictive,  or  uncordictivef 

13.  Is  a  verb  a  branch,  or  a  trunk  word? 
1  1.  What  docs  quadruple  mean  ? 

15.  How  many  powers  does  have  exert  in  the  following  mono- 
logue?— 

I  have  a  book. 

10.   How  many  of  the  four  verb  powers  docs  have  exert  in  this 
sentence  ? — 

John  will  have  been  punished. 

17.  In  what  capacity  does  brcn  act  in  this  t»cuteuce? 


124  CLASSIOLOGY. 

18.  How  many  of  the  four  verb  powers  does  have  surrender  where 
it  is  used  to  mark  the  time? 

19.  What  is  said  of  have,  and  be  at  the  foot  of  the  87th  page  ? 

20.  In  what  capacity  does  be  act  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

James  can  be  good. 

21.  How  many  powers  does  be  surrender? 

22.  Boes  can  exert  the  four  verb  powers  ? 

23.  What  are  the  four  powers  of  the  verb  ? 

24.  What  power  does  been  exert  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

Joseph  will  have  been  in  the  city  ten  days  next  Saturday. 

25.  What  does  am  express  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

I  am. 

26.  How  many  of  the  four  verb  powers  does  am  exert  in  the  next 
monologue  ? — 

I  am  sick. 

27.  How  many  of  the  four  verb  powers  does  am  as  here  used, 
surrender  ? 

28.  When  is  the  exertion  of  both  the  cordictive,  and  the  signifi- 
cant power  of  the  verb  required  ?     [Page  89.] 

29.  On  what  occasion  is  the  exertion  of  but  one  of  these  powers 
exerted  ? 

30.  Do  all  verbs  have  cordictive  powers  ? 

[The  verb  always  exerts  cordictive  power,  unless  its  form, 
or  position  in  the  verb  series  prevents  this  exercise ;  as,  John 
wrote  the  letters,  They  have  books,  The  sun  being  up,  we  de- 
parted,.] 

In  the  following  monologues,  the  verbs  in  italic  characters 
do  not  exert  their  cordictive  power : — 

1.  John  has  written  the  letter. 

2.  Jane  was  cooking  the  steak. 

3.  Joseph  can  be  good. 

1.  How  many  verbs  can  be  used  in  the  same  verb  series? 
Four  : — John  will  have  been  pushed. 

32.  How  is  the  preposition  denomination  defined  ? 

33.  What  does  in,  in  the  first  example,  express  ? 

34.  What  does  about,  in  the  eighth  sentence,  express  ? 

35.  What  does  against,  in  the  ninth  monologue,  express  ? 

36.  Is  the  preposition  denomination  a  large,  or  a  small  class  of 
words  ? 

37.  Is  a  preposition  a  cordictive  word? 

38.  To  what  nouns,  and  pronouns,  are  the  prepositions  appro- 
priated ? 

39.  Are  prepositions  branch,  or  trunk  words  ? 


CLAS5?10L0GY.  125 

40.  What  is  the  conjunction  denomination? 

41.  To  what  syllabanes  are  the  conjunctions  appropriated  ? 

42.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  words,  "  cordictivc  sub  sylla- 

43.  What  is  a  predicate  ? 

[Any  thing,  or  fact  which  is  affirmed,  asked,  commanded, 
suhjirmed,  or  petitioned  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing;  as, 

Is  Samuel  good,  Samuel  is  good,  Samuel,  be  thou  good, 
If  Samuel  is  good,  Forgive  thou  our  sins.'] 

44.  What  examples  illustrate  the  definition  of  the  conjunction? 

45.  What  is  because  ? 

46.  What  is  the  adjective  denomination  ? 

47.  What  is  wo,  in  the  syllabane,  no  apples  ? 

48.  Are  adjectives  applicable  to  cordictivc  nouns,  and  pronouns  ? 

49.  Are  adjectives  cordictive  words  ? 

50.  Are  adjectives  branch  words  ? 

61.  Are  adjectives  applicable  to  uncordiclive  nouns,  and  pronouns  ? 
52.  What  is  a  cordictive  noun  ? 

[A  cordictive  noun  is  one  which  aids  the  verb  in  forming 
a  cordiction ;  as,  Moses  smote  the  rock.]     (Moses  smote.) 

63.  What  is  an  uncordictive  noun  ? 

[An  uncordictive  noun  is  one  which  does  not  aid  in  form- 
ing the  cordiction  of  the  mono ;  as,  Moses  smote  the  rock 
with  his  rod.~]     (rock,  rod.) 

54.  What  is  a  cordiction?     [Book  I.  page  17.] 

55.  Which  is  the  cordictive  noun  in  this  sentence  ? — 

Jane  resembles  Nancy. 

56.  Of  what  denomination  is  resembles  ? 

57.  Why  is  resembles  of  the  verb  denomination  ? 

58.  How  many  of  the  verb  powers  does  resembles  exert  here  ? 
5'J.  What  is  the  characteristic  of  the  adjective  ? 

[The  characteristic  of  the  adjective,  is  the  capacity  to  be 
applied  to  both  the  cordictive,  and  the  uncordictive  nouns. 
The  preposition  is  an  uncordictive  branch  word  applicable 
to  uncordictive  nouns  only.  The  adjective  is  applicable  to 
both  the  cordictive,  and  the  uncordictive  nouns;  as,  John's 
son  has  John's  hat,  These  Jive  large  apples  did  not  grow  in 
these  Jive  large  fields.] 

60.  What  is  apples? 

61 .  Is  apples  cordictive  ? 

62.  Is  fields  uncordictive  ? 

63.  What  is  carving,  in  carving  knife? 

64.  What  does  carving  express  ? 

11* 


126  CLASSIOLOGY. 

65.  What  do  the  adjectives  in  the  following  syllabanes  express  ? 

1.  What  book  have  you  ? 

2.  Has  any  man  called  ? 

3.  Some  person  has  come  in. 

4.  Are  all  the  children  well  ? 

5.  John  has  no  book. 

6.  Each  of  the  seven  boys  has  a  new  book. 

7.  ^Aose  two  boys  must  read  in  the  same  book. 

8.  Call  tlie  large  boy. 

9.  jTAatf  white  dish  is  my  «?«$&  bowl. 

10.  Bakers'  bread. 

11.  Murray's  Grammar. 

12.  Have  you  seen  John  Boston  ? 

13.  He  is  the  attorney  general. 

14.  Is  the  court  martial  now  in  session  ? 

15.  Get  those  apple  seeds. 

16.  Do  you  like  peach  pie  ? 

17.  JFAarf     ,     is  a  nasaZ  sound  ? 

18.  His  voice  is  guttural. 

19.  He  is  a  man  of  affable  manners. 

66.  What  is  the  pronoun  denomination  ? 

67.  Is  the  pronoun  denomination  small  ? 

68.  Is  a  pronoun  a  branch  word  ? 

69.  Are  pronouns  extra  names  ? 

70.  Do  any  of  the  pronouns  derive  their  meaning  from  the  nature 
of  the  context  ? 

71.  What  does  myself  me&n  in  this  sentence? — 

I  hurt  myself. 
[Myself,  here,  means  that  I  hurt,  not  another,  but  myself] 

72.  What  does  myself  mean  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

I  myself  hurt  me. 

[Myself,  here,  not  only  intimates  that  the  hurting  of  me  had 
been  charged  upon  another  person,  but  expresses  the  fact  that 
this  act  was  done  by  me  in  my  own  proper  person.] 

[A  man  may  do  an  act  by  his  agent,  and  he  may  do  it  in  his  own 
proper  person.  ]     [In  propria  persona. ) 

73.  Is  the  pronoun  ever  made  synonymous  with  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, a  clause,  another  pronoun,  and  an  entire  sentence  ? 

74.  Have  you  examined  with  care  the  illustrations  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  pronoun,  which  begin  under  page  108  ? 


CLASSIOLOGY.  127 

75.  Have  you  examined  the  cut  which  illustrates  the  four  speech 
relations  ? 

76.  Can  you  repeat  all  the  words  of  the  pronoun  denomination  ? 

77.  Is  me  a  pronoun? 

78.  Is  as  a  pronoun  ? 

79.  Is  that  a  pronoun  ? 

Name  all  the  Pronouns  in  the  following  sentences:— 

1.  [That  man  is  old;]  (but  he  is  not  wise.) 

2.  [He  was  entertaining  them.] 

3.  [Which  lad  brought  the  note]  (which  I  read  ?) 

4.  [Get  thou  thy  book,]  (Charles.) 

5.  [I  want  American  black  silk  hats.] 

6.  [He  is  not]  (the  man.) 

7.  [I  am]  (he)  (whom  thou  didst  call.) 

8.  [It  is]  (they)  (who  did  this  mischief.) 

9.  [That  (man  is  mortal,)  has  never  been  denied]  (by 
me.) 

10.  [We  have  heard  that]  (the  Greeks  have  defeated  the 
Turks.) 

11.  [You  allege  that]  (this  man  is  innocent;)  (but  we  affirm 
that)  (he  is  not.) 

12.  [He  was  not]  (that  light;)  (but  he  was  sent  to  bear 
witness)  (of  that  light.) 

Note. — Where  the  can  be  substituted  for  that,  that  is  an  adjec- 
tive ;  as,  the  light. 

13.  [Jesus  (       ,       himself)  drew  near  while]  (they  com- 
muned together.) 

14.  [He  was  so  unwell]  (      ,       ,       ,     )  (that)  (he  could 
not  attend.) 

[The  consequence  was)  (that)  (he  could  not  attend.) 

15.  [It  rains.]     [We  know  that.] 

16.  [We  told  him  to  read  the  book ;]  (and  he  did  so.) 

Here,  so  is  synonymous  with  the  word,  it. 


128  ECTOLOGY. 

DENOMINATION  TESTS. 
Principle  I. 

1.  Every  word  which  is  the  regular ;  fixed  name  of  a 
thing,  xoord,  or  fact  that  holds  a  trunk  rank  in  the  mind's 
collocation  of  the  objects  of  thought,  is  of  the  noun  denomi- 
nation; as, 

The  knife  is  sharp,  In  has  two  letters,  pronounce  thou  the 
word,  hooky*  the  writing  of  the  letter  gave  offence,  the 
offence  was  caused  by  laughing. 

Principle  IL 

2.  Every  &/Uabcane}  whether  long,  or  short,  which  is  made 
the  regular,  fixed  name  of  a  thing,  or  a  fact  that  holds  a 
trunk  rank  in  the  mind's  collocation  of  the  objects  of  thought, 
is  a  noun  ;  as, 

1.  He  said,  they  will  reverence  my  son. 

2.  Have  you  to  'pay  the  note  immediately  f 

3.  Thou  shall  love  the  Lord)  is  the  first  commandment. 

4.  The  first  commandment  is,  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord. 

5.  To  see  tJie  sun  is  pleasant. 


PART  VII. 

LESSON  II. 
ECTOLOGY. 


Ectology  is  that  part  of  Etymology)  which  respects  the 
distinctive  powers  that  some  words  exert  in  addition  to  their 
Dictionary  meaning.  (Uktos,  extra,  in  addition  to,  and 
logos,  a  word.) 

1.  Bog,  boys.     (Addition  of  the  number.) 

2.  Bog,  girl.     (Addition  of  the  gender.) 

3.  Man,  Moses.  (Addition  of  the  distinction  between  a  race,  and 
individuals.) 

4.  High,  higher,  highest.  (Addition  of  the  distinction  in  de- 
gree.) 

5.  Write,  wrote.     (Addition  of  the  distinction  in  time.) 

*  Every  word  is  the  regular,  fx^d,  name  of  itself— and,  as,  in  the  collocation  of 
the  objects  of  thought,  the  mind  can  give  a  word  the  trunk  rank,  any  word  may  be 
made  a  noun. 


ECTOLOGY.  129 


LESSON  III. 
ECTOLOGY  OP  NOUNS,  AND  PRONOUNS. 

To  nouns,  and  pronouns  belong, 

1.  Application, 

2.  Reladiction, 

3.  Numer diction,   and 

4.  Genediction. 

APPLICATION. 

In  grammar,  application  respects  the  appropriation  of 
nouns,  and  pronouns. 

1.  Application  of  Nouns. 

The  application  of  nouns  respects  their  appropriation  to 
classes,  or  to  individuals ;  as,  Boy,  James. 

Application  of  Pronouns. 

The  application  of  pronouns  respects  their  appropriation 
to  rational  beings  only,  or  to  mere  things,  and  irrational 
beings,  or  to  rational,  and  to  irrational  beings,  and  to  mere 
things;  as,  /  saw  the  man  that  read  the  book  which  lay  on 
the  table  tliat  was  near  us. 

[/  and  us  are  applied  to  rational  beings  only  ;  that  is  applied  to 
things,  to  rational,  and  to  irrational  beings ;  and  which  is  applied 
to  things,  and  to  irrational  beings.] 

The  applications  of  pronouns  are  divided  into, 

1.  Rational, 

2.  Irrational,  and 

3.  Ambi. 

The  rational  application  respects  the  appropriation  of  pro- 
nouns to  rational  beings  only;  as,  Friend,  i"  do  thee  no 
wrong ;  didst  thou  not  agree  with  me  for  a  penny  ? 

[Pronouns  of  the  rational  application — /,  we,  me,  vs,  thou,  ye, 
you,  who,  whosoever,  whom,  whomsoever,  myself,  ourselves,  thyself, 
yourselves,  oneself] 


c 


130  ECTOLOGY. 

The  irrational  application  respects  the  appropriation  of 
pronouns  to  mere  things  only,  or  to  mere  things  and  to  irra- 
tional beings ;  as,  John  saw  the  horse  lohich  ate  the  grass 
which  grew  in  that  field ;  I  told  Stephen  to  write  the  letter, 
and  the  lad  did  so. 

[Pronouns  of  the  irrational  application — ivhich,  and  *o.] 

Note. — The  pronoun,  which, is  not  unfrequently  applied  to  rational 
beings.  For  instance,  in  the  following: — "For  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  is  like  unto  a  man  that  is  a  householder,  which  went  out 
early  in  the  morning  to  hire  labourers  into  his  vineyard." 

"  Our  Father,  ivhich  art  in  heaven." 

This  application  of  ivhich  is  wrong. " 

The  ambi  application  respects  the  appropriation  of  pro- 
nouns both  to  what  is  rational,  and  to  what  is  irrational ;  as, 
The  man  that  was  saved,  and  the  horse  that  was  lost,  fell 
through  the  bridge  together. 

[Amhiy  both.] 

[Pronouns  of  the  ambi  application—  he,  she,  it,  him,  her,  they,  them, 
himself,  herself,  itself,  the?nseloes,  one  another,  each  other,  one,  ones, 
others,  as,  that.] 

2.    RELADICTION. 

The  reladiction  of  nouns,  and  pronouns,  is  the  expression, 
of  the  speech  relations  of  the  mentioned  things  to  one  another; 
as,  John }  /saw  thee  with  him. 


3.    NUMERDICTION. 

The  numerdiction  of  nouns,  and  pronouns,  is  the  expres' 
sion  of  number — unity }  and  plurality ;  as,  book}  books;  I, 
ice. 

[NumeroSy  number,  and  dictio,  speech.] 


4.    GENEDICTION. 

The  (jenediction  of  nouns,  and  pronouns,  is  the  expression, 
of  the  gender  of  animals ;  as,  boyy  girl. 


ECTOLOOT. 


131 


1.    APPLICATION   OF   NOUNS. 

The  application  of  a  noun  respects  its  appropriation  to  a 
class,  or  to  mere  individuals  ;  as,  city,  Philadelphia* 
Nouns  have  two  technical  applications,  namely, 

Classy  and  Individual. 

1.  The  class  application  of  a  noun  is  its  appropriation  to 
a  class ;  as,  man,  city,  state,  town. 

2.  The  individual  application  of  a  noun  is  its  appropria- 
tion to  individuals;  as,  Thomas,  Baltimore,  Pennsylvania, 
Bottom. 


ILLUSTRATION. 

CLASSES. 

INDIVIDUALS. 

CLASSES. 

This 

man 

is 

Jones, 

the 

painter. 

My 

boy 

James 

the 

shoemaker. 

The 

river 

Delaware 

a  noble 

stream. 

Her 

brother 

John 

the 

grammarian. 

The 

man 

was 

Washington 

the 

General. 

John's 

writing 

to 

Samuel 

last 

week. 

The 

day 

•was 

Saturday 

a 

time. 

The 

month 

of 

June 

has  thirty  days. 

The 

Lord 

said, 

Adam, 

where  art  thou  f 

A  devout 

man 

was 

Cornelius 

who  feared  God. 

A  certain  woman, 

Man/, 

had  seven 

devils. 

This 

plant. 

Charles, 

has  great 

virtue. 

The 

height 

of 

Washington 

was  six 

Sect. 

The 

increase 

of 

Boston 

in 

population. 

The 

strength 

of  the  Bostonians 

or  of  other  men. 

The 

queen 

of 

England 

is  a  mere 

woman. 

This 

man 

Johnson, 

is  A 

shoemaker. 

This 

carpenter 

Mr.  Mann, 

is  not  a 

teacher. 

That 

bird, 

Eliza, 

is  a 

robin. 

132  ECTOLOGY. 


REMARKS. 

Every  thing  both  in  nature,  and  art,  belongs  to  some  clas.* 
No  object  can  be  found  which  has  not  something  in  common 
with  many  others.  And  this  property  which  each  individual  has, 
throws  them  all  into  the  same  class.  Man's  relation  to  the  vari- 
ous objects  which  surround  him,  makes  if  very  convenient  for 
him  to  consider  these  objects  both  in  classes,  and  as  individuals. 
Hence  every  language  has  words  which  are  designed,  and  cal- 
culated to  speak  of  these  objects  in  classes,  and  as  individuals  too. 
The  word,  boy,  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  human  beings.  But 
the  word,  John,  is  the  name  of  an  individual,  not  the  name  of  a 
class  of  individuals.  This  being  that  is  called  John  when  one 
has  occasion  to  distinguish  him  from  his  classmates,  is  deno- 
minated boy  when  one  has  no  occasion  to  call  him  out  from 
among  his  brethren.  Hence  the  same  being  has  two  names — a 
class  name,  as  boy,  and  an  individual  name,  as  John. 

There  are  two  ways  of  bringing  an  individual  out  from  among 
the  members  of  his  class,  by  virtue  of  words.  An  individual 
may  be  designated,  brought  forth,  by  virtue  of  his  individual 
name ;  as,  John. 

And  an  individual  may  be  designated,  pointed  out,  by  apply- 
ing branch  words  to  the  class  name ;  as,  This  boy,  that  boy,  my 
boy,  the  good  boy,  this  little  boy. 

In  general,  the  individual  name  is  as  effectual  in  designating 
any  certain  member  of  a  class  of  objects,  or  beings,  as  is  the 
class  name  with  the  aid  of  suitable  branch  words. 

Still,  there  may  be  instances  where  the  individual  name  itself 
requires  the  aid  of  suitable  branch  signs ;  as,  7'his  John,  the  other 
John,  your  John,  &c. 

In  many  instances,  one  individual  name  is  applied  to  another; 
as,  John  Smith,  James  Foster,  Mary  Brown. 

That  an  individual  name  may  be  applied  to  more  than  one,  is 
obvious.  For  instance,  there  may  be  one  thousand  boys  in 
Pennsylvania,  who  are  called  John.  But,  then,  these  boys  are 
not  a  distinct  class  of  human  beings :  they  are  individuals  that 
have  no  particular  characteristic  mark  to  throw  them  into  a  dis- 
tinct class. 

The  word,  Sunday,  is  an  individual  name ;  still  this  name  is 
applicable  to  all  Sundays.  But  the  Sundays  of  a  year,  do  not 
form  a  distinct  class  of  days.  The  day  which  is  denominated 
Sunday,  has  the  same  class  mark  which  every  other  day  has. 
True,  there  are  various  institutions  which  exert  an  influence 
over  men,  and  manners,  on  Sunday;  but  these  institutions  do 
not  impart  to  the  time  itself  any  characteristic  mark  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  time  of  Saturday.  What  is  an  individual 
name  1 

An  individual  name  is  a  trunk  sign  which  has  the  power  in 


ECTOLOGT.  133 

itself  to  individualize  /  as,  Monday,  Sunday,  June,  July,  James, 
Philadelphia, 

That  the  period  of  time,  called  Monday,  is  a  legitimate  mem- 
ber of  a  class,  is  admitted.  As  Monday,  however,  this  period 
of  time  belongs  to  no  class.  But,  as  a  day,  it  belongs  to  the 
class  of  days.  There  is  no  class  of  Mondays — each  Monday  is 
taken  as  an  individual.  It  may  be  well  enough  to  remark,  in 
this  connection,  that,  where  the  individualizing  power  is  derived 
entirely  from  the  application  of  branch  words,  the  trunk  name 
is  not  an  individual  noun;  as,  This  glove,  My  hat,  His  book, 
Call  the  older  boy  of  the  two. 

Glove,  hat,  book,  and  boy,  have  no  individualizing  power  in 
themselves.  The  power  to  individualize  lies  in  this,  my,  his,  and 
older. 

In  many  instances  the  context,  the  nature  of  the  subject,  or 
some  denning  circumstance  may  individualize;  as, 

"  Now,  the  God  of  peace,  that  brought  again  from  the  dead 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  great  S/iepherd  of  the  sheep,  through 
the  blood  of  the  everlasting  covenant,  make  you  perfect  in  every 
good  work." 

That  the  word,  God,  as  here  used,  means  the  true  God,  the 
Supreme  Being,  is  obvious  from  the  connection  in  which  it  is 
used.  But,  as  this  individualizing  power  does  not  lie  in  the 
word  itself,  God,  is  a  class  noun. 

The  same  remark  holds  good  in  relation  to  the  words,  Lord, 
and  Shepherd.  These  two  names  are  applied  to  Christ  from  the 
very  connection,  and  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  too.  "Lord 
Jesus  Christ,"  "the  great  Shepherd:' 

The  test  is  this,  if  the  word  when  it  is  taken  by  itself,  indi- 
vidualizes, it  is  an  individual  noun.  But,  if  it  generalizes,  it  is 
a  classific  noun.  Fancy,  then,  that  the  word,  God,  is  imprinted 
in  the  palm  of  your  hand,  and  that  you  are  to  decide  which  of 
the  various  gods  it  means.  If,  when  the  word  is  in  this  solitary 
state,  you  cannot  say  that  it  means  the  true  God,  or  this,  or  that 
particular  false  god,  it  means  all  gods,  the  entire  class  of  gods. 

God. 
Lord. 
Shepherd. 
Saviour. 
It  would  be  wrong  in  principle,  to  call  these  names  indivi- 
dualizing nouns  where  they  are  applied  to  the  true  God  by  virtue 
of  any  agency  which  lies  out  of  these  words  themselves. 

Persons  are  thrown  into  distinct  classes  by  virtue  of  their 
vocation,  or  station ;  as,  Shoemakers,  Coopers,  Carpenters,  Au- 
thors, Editors,  Printers,  Kings,  Queens,  Presidents,  Governors, 
Generals,  Judges,  &c.  The  classes  which  are  formed  upon  the 
basis  of  vocations,  and  political  stations,  are  minor  ones.     The 

12 


13 1  ECTOLOGY. 

individuals  that  constitute  the  class  of  shoemakers,  are  U«en 
from  the  class  of  men.  No ;  they  are  not  taken  from  the  human 
family — they  remain  in  the  major  class  while,  by  virtue  of  their 
calling,  they  are  formed  into  the  minor  class.  Hence,  although 
a  man  cannot  be  at  two  places  at  the  same  time,  he  can  be  in 
two  classes  at  the  same  moment. 

1.  The  writing  of  the  letter  was  wrong. 

Writing  is  here  a  trunk  word ;  and,  as  it  is  the  name  of  a 
class,  it  belongs  to  the  nounitory.  As  this  word  when  uninflu- 
enced by  branch  words,  and  by  the  connection  in  which  it 
stands,  is  the  name  of  any,  and  all  acts  of  making  letters  with  a 
pen,  or  with  some  equivalent  means,  it  is  a  class  noun. 
The  iv riling  of  the  letter  by  James  was  not  necessary. 

Here  the  act  of  writing  is  individualized.  But  as  the  word, 
writing,  does  not  individuate  this  act,  this  sign  is  not  an  indivi- 
dual name. 

2.  The  crookedness  of  the  stick. 

The  word,  crookedness,  is  a  class  name,  for  it  includes  the  at- 
tribute of  crookedness  wherever  it  is  found.  There  are  many 
crookednesses.  The  crookedness  of  the  horn,  the  crookedness  of  the 
rainbow,  the  crookedness  of  the  road  of  life,  the  crookedness  of  the 
lane,  the  crookedness  of  the  mind,  &c,  &c. 

This  word  crookedness,  however,  embraces  the  whole  class. 
Hence  it  is  a  class  noun. 

3.    To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

"  To  see  the  sun"  is  a  trunk  sign — and,  as  it  is  the  name  of  a 
class  of  actions,  it  is  a  class  name.  True,  this  class  of  actions 
may  be  small— but  small,  or  great,  the  syllabane,  "to  see  the 
sun"*  is  the  name  of  all  of  the  class. 

And  Herod  said,  "John  have  I  beheaded" 
"  John  have  I  beheaded." 

That  this  mono,  this  assemblage  of  words,  is  a  name  of  a 
complex  idea,  can  not  be  doubted  by  any  man  who  can  reason 
on  the  subject  of  grammar.  This  mono  is  one  long  name  ;  and 
each  short  word  in  it,  is  a  mere  syllable.  In  the  whole  word, 
there  are  four  syllables.  These  four  syllables  are  given  to  the 
reader  as  one  word ;  and  he  must  take  them  as  one  word.  Herod 
said. 

But  what  did  he  say  ?     "John  have  I  beheaded." 
Said  must  rest  on  two  pillars — Herod  is  one ;  and  what  he 
said,  is   the  other.     "  John  have  I  beheaded"  is  what  he  said — 
hence  this  syllabane  is  a  foundation,  a  trunk  name.     It  is  a 
trunk  name  because  it  can  stand  alone : 

1.  "  John  have  I  beheaded." 


ECTOLOGY.  135 

But  is  this  mono  a  class  name,  or  an  individual  one  ?  Does 
this  mono  individuate?  It  does  individualize;  but,  as  it  indi- 
viduates through  the  aid  of  extraneous  matter,  the  reader  is 
compelled  to  leave  this  mono  to  ascertain  whom  the  word,  7, 
represents. 

John  have  i"  beheaded. 

But  who  is  I?  Herod  is  J.  And  does  this  pronoun,  /,  de- 
cide that  Herod  is  I?  No;  the  reader  must  resort  to  the  indi' 
vidual  name,  Herod,  to  enable  him  to  fix  this  act  of  beheading 
John,  upon  Herod. 

Herod  has  beheaded  John. 

Here  the  mono  individualizes  by  virtue  of  its  own  intrinsic, 
innate,  power.  The  sign,  whether  it  consists  of  one  word,  or 
of  many,  which  individuates  by  the  aid  of  adcititious  matter,  is 
not  an  individual  name. 

My  hands. 

That  the  hands  are  individualized,  distinguished  from  all 
other  hands,  is  true.  But,  as  the  means  by  which  the  act  of  in- 
dividuation is  done,  is  in  my,  and  not  in  hands,  hands  is  not  an 
individual,  but  a  class  noun. 

But  why  is  not  my  of  the  nounitory  1  My  is  not  a  trunk,  but 
a  branch,  sign.     Hence  this  word  cannot  belong  to  the  nounitory. 

John  have  I  beheaded. 

Does  the  word,  beheaded,  include  a  class  of  actions  1  It  cer- 
tainly does  not  in  this  proposition.  Nor  does  the  word,  hand,  ir 
the  following,  mean  a  class  of  hands : 

My  hand. 

Hand  can  not  here  include  the  class  of  hands,  because  my 
prevents  it  But,  in  the  following,  hand  comprehends  the  entire 
class : 

Hand. 

So,  if  beheaded  is  placed  alone,  it  includes  all  the  acts  of 
severing  the  head  from  the  body : 

Behead. 

But  the  subject  under  consideration  is  not  constituted  by  the 
word,  beheaded,  alone.  The  point  to  be  decided  is,  whether  this 
mono,  John  have  I  beheaded,  is  a  class,  or  an  individual  sign. 
This  very  act,  for  aught  there  is  in  this  mono  to  prevent  it,  may 
be  done  a  thousand  times,  and  each  time  by  a  different  agent;  as, 

1.  Saul  said,  John  have  I  beheaded.     [Done  by  Saul.] 

2.  Luke  said,  John  have  I  beheaded.     [Done  by  Luke.] 

3.  Pilate  said,  John  have  I  beheaded.    [Done  by  Pilate.] 


136  CLASSIOLOGY. 

As  the  mono,  John  have  I  beheaded,  embraces  the  three  acts, 
so  it  might  include  thousands,  and  thousands.  Hence  this  mono 
is  a  class  sign. 

The  following  is  an  individual  sign : 

Herod  has  beheaded  John. 

1.  Saul  said,  Herod  has  beheaded  John. 

2.  Luke  said,  Herod  has  beheaded  John. 

3.  Pilate  said,  Herod  has  beheaded  John. 

Here  the  mono  is  the  sign  of  the  same  act  at  all  times,  and  in 
all  respects. 

1.  This  man  is  the  Washington  of  the  age. 

2.  That  one  is  the  Cicero  of  America. 

3.  This  volume  is  the  History  of  the  Twelve  Ccesars. 

If  the  way  in  which  an  individual  is  spoken  of,  constitutes 
him  a  class,  his  name  becomes  a  class  noun ;  as, 

1.  This  person  is  the  Washington  of  the  age. 

2.  That  one  is  the  Cicero  of  America. 

3.  He  is  reading  the  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Ccesars. 

1.  The  Washington. 

That  is,  the  one  that  so  distinguished  himself  by  his  deeds, 
that  he  stands  so  far  above  all  his  fellows,  that  he  is  the  only  one 
in  the  class. 

2.  He  is  the  Aristides  of  Philadelphia. . 

Aristides  was  pre-eminently  just — and,  on  this  basis  he  con- 
stitutes a  distinct  class. 

3.  Girard  was  the  Crcesus  of  Philadelphia. 

Croesus  is  here  made  to  constitute  a  class.  Hence  his  name 
is  a  class  noun. 

But,  as  Girard  is  not  spoken  of  as  a  class,  his  name  is  an  tn- 
dividual  noun. 

I  have  extended  my  remarks  upon  the  characteristics  of  a  class, 
and  an  individual  name,  to  a  great  length.  But  the  importance 
of  the  subject,  and  the  little  light  which  the  old  theory  sheds 
upon  this  part  of  the  pupil's  path,  will  apologise  for  this  pro- 
lixity. And,  although  I  have  said  much,  the  darkness  which 
neither  Mr.  Murray,  nor  his  industrious  simplifiers  have  even  at- 
tempted to  diminish,  may  be  as  thick  as  it  was  when  I  first  put 
the  feeble  blaze  to  my  taper  which  I  shall  leave  to  be  trimmed 
by  more  able  hands. 

In  the  Appeal,  I  attempt  to  show  that  every  noun  is  proper. 
And,  as  the  pupil  will  do  well  to  examine  for  himself,  I  refer 
him  to  the  chapter  on  Common,  and  Proper  nouns,  in  that  work. 


CLASfclOLOGY.  137 

LESSON  III. 

SUBDIVISION   OF  VERBS. 

Verbs  are  subdivided  upon  the  basis  of  their  relative  position  in 
a  verb  series,  and  upon  their  capacity  to  be  used  without  another 
verb,  into 

1.  Inceptive, 

2.  final, 

3.  Medial,  and 

4.  Solo. 

1.  An  Inceptive  verb  is  the  first  word  in  the  verb  series ;  as, 

Can  be  punished ;  Might  have  been  punished. 

2.  A  Final  verb  is  the  last  word  in  the  verb  series  ;  as, 

Can  be  punished ;  Was  punished;  Might  have  been  pun- 
ished. 

3.  A  Medial  verb  is  one  which  comes  somewhere  between  the 
Inceptive,  and  the  Final  verb ;  as, 

Can  be  punished;  Might  have  been  punished. 

4.  A  Solo  verb  is  one  which  is  used  alone,  without  another  verb ; 
as, 

John  punislied  them  j  Be  thou  good ;  I  have  a  book. 

1.  Verbs  which  are  always  inceptive. 

May  Might  Shall 

Can  Could  Should 

Must  Would  Ought. 

2.    Verbs  which  may  be  Inceptive,  Medial,  Final,  or  Solo,   as  occa- 
sion requires. 

Be.     Have. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1 .  Joseph,  be  writing  your  copy.     [Inceptive.] 

2.  Jane  will  soon  be  writing.     [Medial.] 

3.  Sarah  must  be  good.     [Final.] 

4.  Sarah,  be  thou  diligent.     [Solo.] 


138  CLASSIOLOGY. 

Have. 

1.  I  have  written.     [Inceptive.] 

2.  John  will  have  written.     [Medial.] 

3.  I  must  have  a  book.     [Final.] 

4.  I  have  a  book.     [Solo.] 

3.  Verbs  which  may  be  Inceptive,  or  Solo,  as  occasion  requires. 

Am,  Art,  Is,  Was,  Wast,  Are,  Were,  Has,  Hast,  Hath,  Did, 
Didst,  Does,  Doth,  Dost. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  I  am  writing.     [Inceptive.] 

2.  I  am  the  pupil.     [Solo.] 

3.  Thou  art  reading.     [Inceptive.] 

4.  Thou  art  here.     [Solo.] 

5.  is  he  walking  ?     [Inceptive.] 

6.  Henry  is  not  well.     [Solo.] 

7.  He  was  walking.     [Inceptive.] 

8.  She  was  ill.     [Solo.] 

9.  Wast  thou  looking  t     [Inceptive.] 

10.  Wast  thou  well  then.     [Solo.] 

11.  The  letters  are  written.     [Inceptive.] 

12.  The  letters  are  correct.     [Solo.] 

13.  Were  they  then  formed  ?     [Inceptive.] 

14.  They  were  then  here.     [Solo.] 

15.  John  has  written.     [Inceptive.] 

16.  Jane  has  a  book.     [Solo.] 

17.  Thou  hast  seen  him.     [Inceptive.] 

18.  Thou  hast  a  knife.     [Solo.] 

19.  He  hath  examined  the  subject.     [Inceptive.] 

20.  She  hath  a  good  mind.     [Solo.] 

21.  He  did  lament.     [Inceptive.] 

22.  John  did  the  work.     [Solo.] 

23.  Didst  thou  speak  ?     [Inceptive.] 

24.  Thou  didst  the  work  well  X     [Solo.] 

25.  James  does  walk.     [Inceptive.] 

26.  Johnson  does  these  jobs  well.     [Solo.] 

27.  He  doth  read  slowly.     [Inceptive.] 

28.  Henry  doth  this  sort  of  work  with  great  skill.   [Solo.] 

29.  Dost  thou  not  recollect  us  ?     [Inceptive.] 

30.  Dost  thou  these  deeds  with  pleasure  ?     [Solo.] 


CLASSIOLOGY.  130 

81.  Dost  thou  not  recollect  us?     [Inceptive.] 

32.  Dost  thou  these  deeds  with  any  degree  of  pleasure  ? 
[Solo.] 

33.  The  letters  being  read.     [Inceptive.] 

34.  He  heing  wise,  we  gave  heed  to  his  counsel.    [Solo.] 

REMARK. 

We  not  unfrequently  find  the  word  being  used  as  a  medial  verb. 
For  instance — "The  house  is  being  built;"  "The  boy  is  being 
taught." 

This  use  of  being  is  shamefully  bad ;  indeed,  it  is  so  despicable, 
that  I  can  hardly  consent  to  comment  upon  it.  That  being  is 
neither  medial  nor  final,  must  be  clear  to  all  who  have  made  the 
construction  of  the  verb  series  a  subject  of  thought.  [More  under 
the  head  of  Syntax.] 

4.    Verbs  which,  though  almost  always  Inceptive,  mag  be  Solo. 

Will.    Would. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  Jane  will  be  here  soon.     [Inceptive.] 

2.  I  will — be  thou  clean.     [Solo.] 

3.  I  would  write  the  letter  if  I  could.     [Inceptive.] 

4.  [I  would  that]  all  would  come  ilnto  me,  and  have  life. 
[Solo.] 

Note. — The  first  would  is  a  solo  verb,  the  second  is  an  incep- 
tive verb. 

But  would  is  so  generally  an  inceptive  verb,  that  I  have  classed 
it  with  the  eight  which  are  always  inceptive. 

5.  Verbs  which  mag  be  Medial,  or  Final,  as  occasion  requires. 
Been.     Done. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  These  letters  must  have  been  written  by  that  man. 
[Medial.] 

2.  These  persons  have  been  in  error.     [Final.] 

Note. — Been,  in  the  primitive  form,  be,  may  be  inceptive,  medial, 
final,  or   solo,  as  occasion  requires. 


140  CLASSIOLOGY. 

6.  Verbs  which  may  be  Inceptive,  Final,  or  Solo,   as  occasion  requires. 
Do.     Had. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  I  do  say  this.     [Inceptive.] 

2.  He  would  do  the  deed.     [Final.] 

3.  They  do  these  jobs  very  well.     [Solo.] 

4.  They  had  seen  her  before.     [Inceptive.] 

5.  John  must  have  had  some  aid  from  thee.     [Final.] 

6.  I  had  several  books  on  this  subject.     [Solo.] 

7.  Verbs  which  are  ahvays  Solo  verbs. 
Quoth,  Off,  Away,  Up,  Wot. 


ILLUSTRATION. 


1.  Quoth  he. 

2.  Quoth  I. 

3.  Off  with  his  head. 

4.  Away  with  him. 

5.  Tfcy  ye. 

6.  Wot  ye  not  that,  &c. 


SPECIMEN. 

1.  [Charles  should  be  good.] 

Charles  is  a  cordictive  noun. 

Should  is  an  inceptive  verb,  exerting  the  four  verb  powers. 
Be  is  a  final  verb,  ascribing  goodness  to  Charles,  and  sur- 

rendering its  other  verb  powers. 

2.  I  will — be  thou  clean. 

[I  will.] 

/       is  ft  cordictive  pronoun,  of  the  par-e-theme  reladiction,  made 

synonymous  with  Christ,  by  application.* 
Will  is  a  solo    verb,  exerting  the  four  verb  powers,  and  is  here 

made  synonymous  with  order,  command,  wish,  or  desire,  by 

application. 

*  Reladiction  is  the  expression  of  the  four  speech  relations,  viz. : 

1.  Pros-o-chistic~, 

2.  Par-e-theme, 

3.  Pros-o-lheme.  and 

4.  ran-tu-theme. 


CLASSIOLOOY.  141 

(Be  thou  clean.) 

Be  is  an  inceptive  verb,  surrendering  its  significant,  and  its  ascrib- 
ing power. 

Thou  is  a  cordictive  pronoun,  of  the  pros-o-iheme  reladiction,  made 
synonymous  with  the  syllabane,  leprous  man,  by  applica- 
tion. 

Clean  is  an  adjective,  and,  as  here  used,  expresses  restoration  to 
health. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  I  was  accosted.     The  sun  had  risen. 

2.  Thou  wast  accused.     Some  would  be  confounded. 

3.  They  must  have  been  taught.     She  was  here. 

4.  John  will  have  a  book. 

5.  I  go. 

6.  Thou  wentest. 

7.  Will  she  have  a  book  ? 

8.  He  willed  me  a  house. 

9.  He  would  go. 

10.  You  had  gone. 

11.  Have  you  a  pen  ? 

12.  "  I  will— Be  thou  clean." 


LESSON  IV. 


Note. — Should  any  Grammarian  ask,  "Why  I  do  not  adopt  the 
m  common  subdivision  of  verbs,  into  Auxiliary  and  Principal"  he  is 
referred  to  the  Appeal  for  an  answer. 


REMARKS. 

1.  The  inceptive  verb  always  exerts  cordictive  power;  as,  John 
teas  writing  the  letter. 

2.  The  nine  verbs  which  are  always  inceptive,  always  exert  the 
four  verb  powers  ;  viz.,  cordictive,  ascribing,  tense,  and  significant;  as 
John  can  have  a  book. 

3.  The  final  verb,  except  be  and  been,  surrenders  three  powers, 
viz.,  the  cordictive,  ascribing,  and  the  tense  power;  as,  John  con 
walk. 

4.  Be  and  been,  when  final  verbs,  surrender  three  of  the  verb 


142  CLASSIOLOGY. 

powers,  viz. :  the  cordiciive,  the  significant,  and  the  tense ;  as,  John 
can  be  good,  James  has  been  bad. 

4.  Be  and  been,  as  medial  verbs,  exert  their  ascribing  power  only ; 
as,  John  might  be  writing  his  copy,  Jane  should  have  been  learning 
her  lesson. 

5.  Have,  when  a  medial  verb,  exerts  its  tense  power  only  ;  as, 
Johnson  will  have  been  in  Philadelphia  three  days  next  Monday. 

6.  Will,  as  an  inceptive  verb,  exerts  the  four  verb  powers ;  as,  I 
will  pay  you  soon. 

7.  A  solo  verb,  except  in  the  imperative,  and  in  the  petitio  native 
cordiction,  always  exerts  the  four  verb  powers  ;  as,  Moses  smote 
the  rock ;  I  will — be  thou  clean. 

8.  In  the  imperative,  and  in  the  pctitionative  cordiction,  the  incep- 
tive, and  the  solo  verb,  surrender  the  ascribing  power  only ;  as, 
Be  thou  clean ;  Be  thou  writing  soon,  John ;  Forgive  our  sins  ;  Par- 
don our  transgressions. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  a  verb? 

2.  How  many  powers  naturally  belong  to  verbs  ? 

3.  What  is  an  inceptive  verb  ? 

4.  Can  you  name  the  four  powers  which  naturally  belong  to  the 
verb? 

5.  Is  cotdd,  always  an  inceptive  verb  ? 

6.  Is  will,  always  a  solo    verb? 

7.  What  is  a,  final  verb  ? 

8.  What  is  a  solo  verb  ? 

9.  How  many  of  the  natural  powers  of  the  verb  does  an  incep- 
tive verb  surrender  in  a  solo    of  the  imperative  cordiction  ? 

10.  What  powers  does  the  inceptive  verb  exert  in  the  petitionative 
cordiction  ? 

11.  What  powers  does  the  solo  verb  surrender  in  the  imperative 
cordiction  ?  H 

12.  Is  have,  a  medial  verb  ? 

13.  What  powers  does  have,  as  a  medial  verb,  exert  ? 

14.  What  powers  does  have,  as  a  final  verb,  exert? 

15.  What  powers  does  have,  as  a  solo  verb  in  the  affirmative  cor- 
diction, exert? 

16.  Can  did  be  &  final  verb  ?     [No.] 

17.  Can  did  be  a  solo   verb?     [Yes.] 

18.  Can  did  be  a  medial  verb  ?     [No.] 

19.  Can  done  be  a  medial  verb  ?    [He  must  have  done  writing  the 
letter.] 

20.  Can  do  be  an  inceptive  verb  ? 

21.  Can  do  be  &  final  verb  ?     [I  must  do  the  work.] 

22.  What  is  did,  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

Washington  did  command  the  army. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  143 

28.  What  is  did  in  this  sentence? — 

Sarah  did  the  work  well. 

24.  What  is  do  in  the  following  ? — 

"Do  you  see  that  lad  ?" 
[I  do     ,      .] 

Note. — Here  see,  the  final  verb,  is  understood ;  which  renders 
do,  an  inceptive  verb. 

25.  What  verb  may  be  inceptive,  final,  or   solo,    as  occasion  de- 
mands? 

26.  What  verb  may  be  medial,  final,  or    solo,    as  occasion  re- 
quires ? 

27.  What  verbs  are  always  inceptive  ? 

28.  What  is  a  verb  ? 

29.  How  many  verbs  are  there  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

lie  was  not  that  light,  but  he  came  to  bear  witness  of  that 
light. 

30.  What  kind  of  a  verb  is  teas,  here  ? 

Is  there  a  verb  series  here?     \Camc  to  bear."] 
81.  What  is  he?    What  is  that?     What  is  but?    What  is  wit- 
ness? What  is  of?     What  is  light? 

32.  Why  is  he  a  pronoun  ? 

33.  How  many  of  the  verb  powers  does  was  exert  here  ? 

34.  How  many  does  came  surrender  ? 

35.  Does  bear  exert  cordictive  power  here  ? 


LESSON  V. 
PRONOUN   TESTS. 


The  trunk  word  which  can  be  placed  on  the  comma,  and 
read  with  the  skeleton  syllabane,  is  a  pronoun. 

1.  ,         am  here.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

2.  ,         art  sick.     [The  pros-o-theme.] 

3.  ,         ,         am  writing.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

4.  ,         ,         art  not  satisfied.     [The  pros-o-theme.] 

5.  Richard  is         ,         again.     [The  panta-themc.] 

6.  These  books  are  the  ones      ,      this  man  wants.    [The 
panta-themc.] 

7.  That  gentleman  wants  such  books      ,      these.     [The 
panta-theme.] 


144  CLASSIOLOGY. 

8.  This  boy  is  the  lad         ,         reads  so  well.     [The  pan- 
ta-theme.] 

9.  Nathaniel  has  the  book         ,         this  boy  wants. 

10.  ,  is  said  ,  this  man  is  brave.  [The  panta- 
theme.] 

11.  ,     is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun. 

12.  ,  this  man  is  brave,  is  not  denied.  [The  panta- 
theme.] 

13.  Boys,  have  ,  yourselves  seen  Stephen.  [The 
pros-o-theme.] 

14.  ,     ourselves  are  perfectly  satisfied.  [The  par-e-theme.] 

15.  Boys, have  you  ,  seen  Stephen?  [The pros-o- 
theme.] 

16.  We         ,         are  perfectly  satisfied.  [The  par-e-theme.] 

17.  I         ,         went.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

18.  ,     myself  went.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

19.  We  ,  went.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

20.  ,     ourselves  went.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

21.  Ye  ,         went.     [The  pros-o-theme.] 

22.  ,     yourselves  went.     [The  pros-o-theme.] 

23.  And  Jesus  went  up  into  a  high  mountain,  and  when 
,     was  set,  his  disciples  came  unto        ,       .     [The  panta- 

theme.] 

24.  The  men  went  into  a  field,  and  when  ,  were 
there,  ,  saw  their  brother  approaching  ,  .  [The 
panta-theme.] 

25.  ,  expects  to  be  saved,  ,  must  repent.  [The 
panta-theme.] 

26.  The  woman         ,         came.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

27.  ,  ,  expects  to  be  saved,  must  repent.  [The 
panta-theme.] 

28.  I  shall  soon  be         ,         again.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

29.  Nathaniel,  I  am  glad  to  find     ,     sober ;      ,      art  now 
,         .     [The  pros-o-theme.] 

30.  John,  I         ,         will  attend.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

31.  They  have  Christ  ,  for  their  captain.  [The 
panta-theme.] 

32.  The  Apostles  ,  were  endowed  with  miraculous 
powers.     [The  panta-theme.] 

33.  ,     Christ      ,      possessed.     [The  panta-theme.] 

34.  These  men  saw  the  father      ,      .    [The  panta-theme.] 


CLASSIOLOOY.  145 

35.  These  men      ,      saw  the  father.    [The  panta-theme.] 

36.  The  captain         ,         was  lost.     [The  panta-theme.] 

37.  On  this  occasion,  the  hills  ,  trembled.  [The 
panta-theme.] 

38.  ,     ourselves  must  soon  follow.     [The  par-e-theme.] 

39.  ,  Paul,  ,  beseech  ,  .  [The  par-e-theme, 
and  the  pros-o-theme.] 

40.  [  ,  (  ,  am  Paul)  beseech  ,  .]  [The 
par-e-theme,  and  the  pros-o-theme.] 

41.  Master,  ,  have  brought  my  son  unto  ,  .  [The 
par-e-theme,  and  the  pros-o-theme.] 

42.  ,     rains.     [The  panta-theme.] 

43.  ,  so  cold  ,  John  must  have  a  fire.  [The 
panta-theme.] 

44.  ,  said  ,  this  man  is  in  error  , »  his 
friends  deny.     [The  panta-theme.] 

45.  It  rains.     John  knows     ,     .     [The  panta-theme.] 

46.  James  was  invited  to  attend,  and  ,  did  ,  .  [The 
panta-theme.] 

47.  John  sold  us  an  ox,  ,  his  father  did  not  sanc- 
tion.    [The  panta-theme.] 

48.  [A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard,]  (and  ,  set  an 
hedge)  (about  ,  )  (and  ,  digged  a  place)  (for  the  wine 
vat,)  (and  ,  built  a  tower,)  (and  ,  let  ,  out)  (to 
husbandmen,)  (and  ,  went  into  a  far  country.)  [The 
panta-theme.] 

49.  ,         did  John  call  ? 


LESSON  VI. 

3.    THE   VERB   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  large  class  of  cordictive  branch  words,  which  act  in  a 
quadruple,  triple,  double,  or  single  capacity,  as  occasion  re- 
quires; as 

1.  John  loves  his  enemies.     (Quadruple.) 

2.  John  will  love  his  enemies.      Go  thou.     (Triple.) 

3.  John  having  a  book,  he  read  it.     (Triple.) 

13 


146  CLASSIOLOGY. 

4.  John  being  wise  wc  took  his  advico.     (Double.) 

5.  Job-    will  love  his  enemies,     (Single.) 

6.  John  will  be  good.     (Single.) 

7.  John  will  have  come  by  10  o'clock.    (Single.) 


How  a  word  may  be  known  to  be  a  Verb. 
Rule  I. 

The  branch  word  which  will  aid  a  trunk  word  in  forming 
a  cor  diction,  is  a  verb;  as,  I  walk;  He  reads;  We  write; 
Thou  art. 

Rule  II. 

The  branch  word  which  cannot  aid  a  trunk  word  in  form- 
ing a  cordiction,  is  not  a  verb ;  as,  Of  John;  A  book;  T/ie 
pen. 

REMARK. 

To  decide  whether  a  branch  word  has  cordictive  power,  it 
may  be  placed  in  juxtaposition  with  I,  thou,  he,  or  we. 

Every  branch  word  which  has  cordictive  power,  will  act 
in  conjunction  with  one  of  these  trunk  words  in  forming  a 
cor  diction.     Hence  these  pronouns  are  styled 


TEST   PRONOUNS. 


I 

Thou 


He 
We 


SPECIMEN    OF   TESTING. 


1.    Could  have  been  punished. 

Could,  he  could. —  Could  is  a  verb. — Rule  I. 

have,  we  have. — Have  is  a  verb. — Rule  I. 

been,*  be  thou. — Been  is  a  verb. — Rule  I. 

punished,  IpunisJied. — Punished  is  a  verb. — Rule  I. 

*  Whenever  the  derivative  form  of  a  -word  is  a  preventive  against  the  exertion 
of  oordictlvw  po-**fr,  the.  word  dbotild  l>e  teatcd  in  (mother  form.  Uencc  bten  is 
wiuoed  to  be,  its  primitive  fctatc. 


CLAWIOT.OOY. 


147 


2.    The  good,  old  man. 

TESTED. 

The,     the  we,  we  the. —  The  is  not  a  verb. — Rule  II. 

good}    good  thou,  thou  good. —  Good  is  not  a  verb. — Rule  II. 

old,      old  we,  we  old. — Old  is  not  a  verb. — Rule  II. 

man,  man  we,  we  man. — Man,  as  used  in  the  above  sylla- 
bane  is  a  trunk  word ;  hence  it  cannot  be  a  verb  as 
there  used.  But  man,  in  the  following  sentence,  is 
a  branch  word,  and  is  a  verb : — 

We  man  our  own  ship. 


EXERCISES, 

In  Testing  whether  words  are  Verbs. 


Awakw* 

draww* 

nearer 

any 

Awoke 

drive 

freeze 

never 

Awaken 

drink* 

give 

rise 

Begin 

though 

surely 

run* 

Choose 

hew 

indeed 

see 

Blow 

fullest 

goest 

shake** 

Break 

fly 

grow 

knit 

Softly 

forbear 

partake 

mowed 

Come 

forsake 

no 

many 

Well 

otherwise 

not 

clothed 

Do 

else 

smite 

forbear 

Rather 

lie 

scarcely 

forsake 

Sooner 

rise* 

sparingly 

throw 

Chiefly 

run 

scantily 

tread 

Freeze 

see** 

speak 

wear 

Give 

shake 

steal 

weave 

Equally 

unlike 

stride 

write** 

So 

flew 

less 

bore 

Thus 

forbore 

strive 

best 

Know 

tore 

swear 

blown 

Broke 

best 

hewed 

broken 

Chose 

little 

former 

forsaken 

Did** 

much 

lain 

generally 

Drew 

threw 

crowd 

frozen 

Drove 

trod 

partaken 

given 

Drankr** 

wore 

namely 

off 

Fell 

wove 

risen 

gone 

Deal 

wrote** 

seen 

grown 

Clothe 

can 

shaken 

known 

148  ECTOLOGY. 

LESSON  VII. 
TENSE   OP  VERBS. 

Tense  is  the  fourth  power  of  the  verb,  and  is  exerted  in 
pointing  out  six  different  times.  [Tempus,  time.]  (Tense 
is  the  time-expressing  power  of  the  verb.) 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  We  write.     [Present  tense.] 

2.  "We  wrote.     [Past  tense.] 

It  is  important  that  the  learner  should  make  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  tense,  and  the  time  which  the  verb  points  out  by  means 
of  the  tense.  The  tense  of  a  verb  is  to  the  time  pointed  out,  what 
the  hands  of  a  watch  are  to  the  time  pointed  out  by  them.  The 
hands  are  not  the  time ;  nor  is  the  tense  the  time. 

In  general,  the  tense  is  indicated  by  certain  forms  of  the  verb ;  as, 
ivalks,  walked,  do,  did. 

But  the  tense  is  often  varied  by  exchanging  one  entire  word 
for  another ;  as,  am,  was,  go,  went.  That  is,  I  now  am ;  I  then 
wa.s;  I  now  go;  but  I  then  went. 

In  some  instances,  the  tense  of  the  verb  seems  to  consist  of  a 
time-expressing 'power  which  resides  in  the  verb,  even  where  the  verb 
has  no  form,  indicative  of  the  residence  of  this  power ;  as,  will,  shall. 

While  will,  and  shall  seem  to  possess,  in  addition  to  their  diction- 
ary, and  context  meaning,  &  power  to  point  out  future  time,  they  are 
devoid  of  every  thing  like  a  form  for  the  indication  of  the  resi- 
dence of  this  power. 

1.  I  will  write.     [Future.] 

2.  They  will  walk.     [Future.] 

The  English  language  is  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  these 
two  inceptive  verbs  for  the  expression  of  future  time.  To  throw  any 
event,  fact,  or  circumstance  into  future  time  by  means  of  the  verb, 
the  speaker,  or  writer  must  use  will,  or  shall.   (Should  rarely.) 

The  tenses  of  verbs  derive  their  distinctive  names  from  the  dif- 
ferent times  which  they  express.    Hence  the  tenses  are  divided  into 

1.  Present, 

2.  Re-present, 

3.  Past, 

4.  Prior -past, 

5.  Future,  and 

6.  Prior-future. 

That  these  distinctive  words  are  quite  applicable,  may  be  seen 
from  an  examination  of  the  following  division  of  time  itself: — 


ECTOLOGY.  149 

Men  exist  on  land;  fishes  in  water ;  nnd  events  in  time. 

The  earth  is  divided  into  different  parts ;  and  while  some  men 
live  in  some  sections,  others  reside  in  other  sections.  These 
sections  are  named,  that  we  may  be  able  to  learn  in  what  cer- 
tuin  part,  or  division,  a  particular  man  lives.  These  names  are 
first  general ;  as  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  They  are, 
secondly,  particular  ;  as,  Frrtnsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia.  They 
are,  thirdly,  minute ;   as,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Mount  Vernon. 

In  this  way  we  are  enabled  to  locate  men ;  in  this  way  we  are 
enabled  to  find  their  exact  topography,  their  exact  place  of  residence. 
But,  if  the  earth  was  without  these  divisions,  or  the  divisions 
without  these  names,  how  very  difficult  it  would  be  to  ascertain 
the  topography  of  a  man,  the  place  of  his  residence  !  Without  these 
divisions,  and  names,  who  could  tell  me  at  this  time,  the  spot  of 
ground  on  which  Washington  resided ;  and  who  could  inform  you 
upon  what  part  of  the  great  earth  Daniel  Webster  has  placed  him- 
self. But  by  these  dhnsions  and  names,  with  what  ease  can  you 
inform  me  upon  what  division  of  the  earth  Washington  was  placed ; 
nnd  with  what  readiness  can  I  inform  you  upon  what  spot  Webster 
is  located  ! 

Washington.  Webster. 

Mount  Vernon.  Boston. 

Men  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  ;  evenU  are  the  inhabitants 
of  time.  Men  live  in  nations,  states,  counties,  towns,  cities,  wards,  and 
neighbourhoods  ;  events  live  in  ages,  years,  months,  weefo,  days,  hours, 
minutes,  and  seconds.  Men  live  on  the  earth;  events  reside  in  time. 
And,  as  the  earth  is  divided,  and  subdivided  with  a  view  to  a  know- 
ledge of  the  location  of  men ;  so  time  is  divided,  and  subdivided  with 
a  view  to  a  knowledge  of  the  topography  of  events.  Events  exist 
in  time — and,  to  mark  their  respective  locations,  topographies,  or 
spots  of  residence,  time  itself  is  divided  into  six  chronological  dis- 
tricts. 

For  the  purposes  of  speech,  time  is  divided  into 

1.  Present y 

2.  Recalled  present, 

3.  Past, 

4.  Prior-past, 
-**'-                         5.  Future,  and 

6.  Prior-future. 

1.  Present  time  is  that,  whether  little  or  much,  which  is 
represented  to  be  in  our  presence;  as,  This  day  ;  This  even- 
ing;  To-day;   This  morning ;   This  year. 

2.  Recalled  present  time  is  past  time  made  present,  by 

13* 


150  ECTOLOGY. 

placing  it  in  our  presence  again;  as,  I  have  written  two  let- 
ters to-day. 

Note. — Here,  to-day  is  the  entire  period  which,  from  the  nature 
of  the  case,  is  divided  into  two  parts,  viz.,  the  part  in  which  I 
wrote  the  letters,  and  that  in  which  I  speak  of  the  writing  of  them. 
One  part  of  the  day  has  gone  ;  the  other  part  has  not  yet  passed 
off.  But  the  passed  part,  the  part  in  which  I  wrote  the  letters,  is 
recalled  by  have — I  have  written  two  letters  to-day. 

By  to-day,  the  whole  period  is  placed  in  our  presence.  What, 
inquires  the  thinking  pupil,  Is  the  whole  day  brought  into  our 
presence  ?  Did  not  some  of  it  pass  off  in  writing  the  two  letters  ? 
Yes; — but,  then,  this  part  is  recalled  by  have,  and  the  whole 
day  is  represented  to  be  in  my  presence. 

I  have  written  two  letters  this  week. 

Here,  the  entire  week  is  represented  to  be  in  my  presence  ;  hence, 
this  whole  week  is  present  time.  Yet  I  will  not  pretend  that  the 
part  of  the  week  in  which  I  wrote  the  letters  had  not  already 
passed  off.  But,  as  there  is  no  expression  of  this  fact,  and,  as  the 
words  used  put  the  whole  week  into  my  presence,  the  whole  week  is 
present  time  in  speech.  Every  Grammarian  will  allow  that  the 
whole  week,  in  the  first  of  the  following  sentences,  is  present  time : — 

1.  I  am  very  well  this  week. 

2.  I  have  written  two  letters  this  week. 

3.  I  wrote  two  letters  last  week. 

Now,  if  last  throws  the  whole  week  out  of  my  presence,  this  brings 
the  whole  week  into  my  presence. 

3.  Past  time  is  that,  whether  little  or  much,  which,  has 
been  in  our  presence,  but  has  passed  out  of  it ;  as,  Last 
week. 

4.  Prior-past  time  is  that  which  had  passed  out  of  our 
presence  before  another  time  passed  out  of  it ;  as,  1847  be- 
fore 1848. 

As  1847  had  passed  out  of  owe  presence  before  1848,  1847  is  prior 
past  time. 

5.  Future  time  is  that  which  has  not  yet  come  into  our 
presence;  as,  1860,  1870. 

6.  Prior-future  time  is  that  which  will  come  into  our 
presence  before  another  future  time  will  come;  as;  1860 
before  1862 ;  Next  Monday  before  next  Tuesday. 


ECTOLOGY.  151 

LESSON  VIII. 
TENSE. 

Tense  is  the  fourth  power  of  the  verb,  and  is  exerted  in 
pointing  out  six  different  times. 
There  are  six  tenses,  viz. : — 

1.  Present, 

2.  Re-present, 

3.  Past, 

4.  Prior-past, 

5.  Future ,  and 

6.  Prior-future. 

1.    PRESENT   TENSE. 

The  present  tense  is  the  power  which  the  verb  exerts  in 
representing  time  to  be  in  our  presence,  which  may  be  more 
or  less,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case ;  as, 

1.  I  am. 

2.  Henry  rides  out  daily. 

3.  Virtue  is  commendable. 

4.  These  merchants  purchase  their  goods  in  Manchester. 

5.  God  wills  whatever  comes  to  pass. 

REMARKS. 

1.  I  am. 

Perhaps  in  I  am,  there  i8  no  more  present  time  than  is  occupied 
in  uttering  the  sentence. 

2.  Henry  rides  out  daily. 

Here,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  present  time  designated 
by  rides,  may  be  long,  or  short.  Should  the  practice  of  riding  out 
daily  be  continued  ten  years,  the  period  of  present  time  indicated 
by  the  tense  of  rides,  must  comprise  not  fewer  than  one  hundred 
and  twenty  months. 

3.  Virtue  is  commendable. 
Here,  the  present  time  has  no  end. 


152  ECTOLOGY. 

4.  These  merchants  purchase  their  goods  in  Manchester. 
Here,  the  amount  of  present  time  must  be  decided  by  the  num- 
ber of  years  in  which  these  men  continue  in  business. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  In  very  many  instances,  the  exertion  of  the  time-ex- 
pressing  power  is  indicated  by  certain  forms  of  the  verb. 

2.  Solo  verbs  which  end  in  s,  es,  or  th,  are  of  the  present 
tense  ;  as,  Henry  has  a  book  ;  John  hstfh  great  faith  in  dreams. 

3.  In  general,  solo  verbs  which  are  used  in  their  primi- 
tive state,  are  of  the  present  tense;  as,  We  walk;  They 
sing. 

4.  Every  inceptive  verb  exerts  its  time-expressing  power. 

5.  No  final  verb  exerts  the  time- expressing  power;  as, 
We  did  walk;  They  shall  have  been  punished. 

6.  All  medial  verbs,  except  have,  surrender  their  time- 
expressing  power ;  as,  They  will  be  punished. 

7.  As  a  medial  verb,  have  exerts  its  time-expressing 
power  only ;  as,  They  will  have  been  punished. 

8.  Where  there  is  but  one  verb  in  the  Demi-mono,  it 
exerts  its  present  tense ;  as;  John  was  to  return  last  week. 
[Book  I.  p.  32.] 

PRESENT  TENSE  CONCORDANCE. 

£By  consulting  this  Concordance,  the  learner  will  find  all  the 
variety  of  cases  which  have  this  tense.] 

1.  Thou  art  to  be  the  next  President. 

2.  Is  he  coming  to  the  city  soon  ? 

3.  He  is  to  return  to  America  next  year. 

4.  Go  thou  to  school. 

5.  Be  thou  here  at  the  appointed  hour. 

6.  I  will — be  thou  clean. — I  decree  it — be  thou  clean.    (I  will  it.) 

7.  I  can  call  in  a  few  days. 

8.  I  may  come  next  week. 

9.  They  must  return  next  fall. 

10.  I  might  return  to-morrow  if  I  would. 

11.  I  could  go  next  year  if  I  desired  it. 

12.  I  would  go  now  if  I  was  not  sick. 

13.  Was  I  in  good  health,  I  surely  would  return  immediately. 

14.  John  should  attend  to  his  book  at  home. 

15.  If  he  was  well  he  would  visit  us. 

16.  I  wish  that  we  were  now  in  Pennsylvania. 


ECTOLOGY.  153 

17.  Were  we  out  of  this  place,  I  should  be  much  pleased — I  would 

not  be  found  here  again !  a 

18.  Had  he  a  knife,  he  could  make  his  own  pens. 

19.  Did  he  write  a  good  hand,  he  might  be  employed  as  clerk. 

20.  Was  he  now  inclined  to  attend  to  his  affairs  properly,  he 

might  soon  recover  from  his  embarrassment. 

21.  I  told  him  to  go  to  church. 

22.  He  is  about  to  return  to  London. 

23.  Were  the  papers  here,  we  would  proceed  to  business. 

24.  When  the  mail  arrives,  we  shall  get  some  news. 

25.  Would  he  come  if  he  could? 

26.  I  have  a  book. 

27.  Thou  hast  a  pen. 

28.  He  has  a  knife. 

29.  I  am  to  have  a  new  book  next  week. 

30.  Had  he  a  book,  I  would  give  him  a  lesson. 


2.   RE-PRESENT   TENSE. 

The  re-present  tense  is  the  time-expressing  power  which 
a  verb  exerts  in  making  the  passed  part  of  an  expressed,  or 
implied  period,  present  time  again;  as,  Thomas  has  read 
his  book  through. 

That  is,  Thomas  has  read  his  book  through  this  evening,  this 
morning,  or  this  week.     [Re,  again.] 

The  inceptive  verb,  have,  has,  hath,  or  hast,  with  one  exception, 
is  the  only  verb  which  has  the  re-present  tense. 

Have,  as  a  medial  verb  after  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would, 
or  should,  has  the  re-present  tense. 

have      1 
hast 
has 
hath 


1.  JRe-presentf 


written  (    ,     ,     ,     ) 


2.  Re-present, 


may 

can 

must 

might 

could 

would 

should 


•  have  flown. 


Here,  there  is  no  tense  mono  that  decides  which  one  of  these  three 
times  is  intended : — 

1.  Recalled  present } 

2.  Past, 

3.  Prior-past. 


154  ECTOLOGY. 

If,  however,  we  drop  the  hiceptives,  have  decides  the  time  to 
which  the  writejr  wishes  to  point  to  be  the  recalled  present. 

Dave  flown. 

Here,  we  must  say,  have  flown  to-day,  this  morning,  this  week,  this 
year,  or  this  sometime. 

But  where  the  inceptives  are  used  before  have  as  a  medial,  wo 
may  say,  this  week,  or  last  week. 

The  tense  of  the  verb  is  often  very  feeble.  So  weak,  indeed,  is 
this  power  of  the  verb,  that  was  it  not  for  the  aid  which  is  derived 
from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  or  from  some  expressed,  or  implied 
mono  of  the  sentence,  we  could  not  ascertain  in  many  cases  what 
particular  time  the  writer  intends. 

To  illustrate  the  influence  which  the  nature  of  the  case  exerts 
over  the  time-expressing  power  of  the  verb,  we  will  take  did,  was, 
and  have. 

The  tense  of  did  is  clearly  passed ; — John  did  return. 

Yet  this  passed  tense  of  do,  may  be  rendered  present;  as, 

Did  the  boy  write  a  good  hand,  he  might  be  useful  to 
some  merchant. 

Had 

1.  John  had  my  book  last  week.     [Clearly  passed.] 

2.  Had  John  a  book,  he  could  learn  his  lesson.  [Clearly 
present.] 

Was. 

1.  Jane  was  well  last  week.     [Clearly  passed.] 

2.  Was  Jane  now  well,  she  could  return  to  Philadelphia. 
[Clearly  present.] 

May  have  written,  can  have  written,  must  have  written,  might 
have  written,  could  have  written,  woidd  have  written,  and  should 
have  written,  may  be  of  the  re-present,  past,  or  prior-past,  as  occa- 
sion requires. 

1.  Re-present. — They  could  have  come  this  week. 

2.  Past. — They  might  have  come  last  week. 

3.  Prior-past. — God  must  have  known  the  fate  of  men 
before  he  created  them. 


CONCORDANCE. 

1.  I  have  written  a  book  (,,,)* 

2.  Thou  hast  read  the  letter  (         ,         ,         ) 

*  The  commas  indicate  some  implied  re-present  mono ;  an,  (in  my  life,)  (to-day.) 


ECTOLOQY.  155 

3.  He  has  been  at  church  (         ,         ,         ) 

4.  She  hath  been  at  tea  (         ,         ,         ) 
b.  Henry  must  have  returned  this  week. 

fi.   He  may  have  been  here  (this  evening.) 

7.  He  might  have  been  here  (this  year.) 

8.  He  could  have  gone  (this  iceck.) 

9.  He  would  have  gone  (this  week)  had  the  boat  made  a  third 

trip. 
10.  I  have  never  drunk  better  water. 

Notk. — If  the  time  expressed,  or  implied  has  all  passed  off,  the 
tense  of  the  verb  should  be  passed ;  as, 

I  never  drank  better  water. 
Here  the  whole  life  is  alluded  to  as  ended.     Hence  the  former 
of  the  sentence  shuts  himself  out  of  this  world  ;  for  his  life  has 
closed.     And  should  this  departed  spirit  be  asked,  "  when  he  never 
drank  better  water,"  he  must  answer,  "When  I  was  in  the 
That  is,  before  I  took  up  my  connections  with  the  earth  V* 


LESSON  IX. 
3.    PASSED   TENSE. 


The  passed  tense  is  the  power  which  the  verb  exerts  in 
taking  a  point  of  time  by  Use//,  and  representing  it  to  be 
fully  passed  off — out  of  our  presence  ;  as, 

1.  They  came  to  me. 

2.  The  birds  flew  over  the  trees. 

3.  Mary  loved  her  little  brother. 


CONCORDANCE, 

1.  Thou  wast  the  man  (         ,         ,         .) 

2.  Was  he  coming  to  the  city  ?  (         ,         ,         .) 

3.  He  was  to  return  (last  year.) 

4.  I  had  a  book  (,,.*) 

5.  Thou  hadst  a  knife  (         ,         ,         .) 

*  It  in  not  necessary  to  have  an  expressed  past  tense,  mono,  to  make  had  point  to 
pa,<t  time.  There  is  always  a  past  tense  mono  implied  in  the  past  tense  of  the  verb 
U«Hf.  We  should  not  say:  She  had  a  hook  to-day,  for  had  indicates  that  the  tim<? 
■tta<M  to.  is  all,  every  whit  of  it,  prior  to  that  of  speaking.  Hence  we  ishould  way ; 
bu<:  luul  a  book  yesterday,  last  evening,  last  week,  &c. 


156  ECTOLOGY. 

6.  Had  he  come,  (last  week,)  he  could  have  seen  his  brother. 

Note. — In  this,  and  in  the  following  instances,  the  time  of  the 
event  is  known  to  be  passed,  by  the  passed  tense  mono  "  last  week," 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  sentence. 

7.  If  he  had  called  (la*t  evening,)  I  would  have  gone  to  church 

with  him. 

8.  He  may  have  written  (last  week.) 

9.  He  must  have  gone  (last  evening.) 

10.  He  might  have  seen  me  (on  Monday  last)  had  he  called  at  my 

office. 

11.  He  could  have  seen  me  at  home  (in  the  evening)  (of  Saturday 

last.) 

12.  He  should  have  written  (last  evening.) 

13.  He  would  return  in  despite  of  all  his  Mends  could  say  to  him. 

14.  He  would  not  be  consoled;  and  we  could  do  nothing  for  him. 

15.  Had  you  an  opportunity  to  examine  the  witness  ? 


4.    PRIOR-PASSED   TENSE. 

The  Prior-passed  tense  is  the  time-expressing  power  which 
a  verb  exerts  in  pointing  out  time  that  passed  off  before  the 
passed  time  designated  by  another  verb ;  as, 

1.  [I  had  seen  him  before]  (he  called)  (on  me.) 

2.  [He  (that  had  been  dead)  sat  up,]  (and  ,  began 
to  speak.) 

Note. — When  this  tense  is  under  the  control  of  the  inceptive,  had, 
it  is  strong,  and  the  priority  in  the  passage  of  the  time,  is  clearly 
marked.  But,  when  this  time-expressing  power  is  exerted  by 
may  have,  must  have,  can  have,  could  have,  would  have,  should  have, 
or  might  have,  it  is  quite  feeble  ;  and  was  it  not  aided  by  the  con- 
text, or  by  some  expressed,  or  implied  prior-tense  adverb,  or  prior- 
tense  mono,  the  time  pointed  out  would  be  as  likely  to  be  taken  for 
re-present,  or  past,  as  for  prior-passed. 


CONCORDANCE. 

1.  I  had  learned  my  lesson  before  I  went  to  school. 

2.  He  had  had  the  book  two  days  when  I  called  on  him. 

3.  He  had  been  sick  several  days  before  he  sent  for  a  physician. 

4.  He  that  had  been  dead,  sat  up,  and  began  to  speak. 

5.  He  may  have  been  there  before  I  arrived. 

(5.  He  must  have  seen  the  man  before  this  event  happened. 


ECTOLOQY.  157 

7.  I  might,  or  could  have  seen  the  President  before  he  came  to 

Philadelphia. 

8.  They  would  have  seen  the  President  before  they  left  Washing- 

ton, at  the  time  of  their  sojourn  in  that  place. 

9.  lie  should  have  done  it  before  I  came  home. 


5.    FUTURE   TENSE. 

The  future  tense  is  the  time-expressing  power  which  a 
verb  exerts  in  representing  the  time  not  only  to  be  future, 
but  independent  of,  and  disconnected  with,  every  other 
future  time;  as, 

1.  I  w ill  return  next  week. 

2.  Jane  shall  learn  English  grammar  soon. 

3.  Should  it  rain  to-morrow,  we  slmll  not  return. 

CONCORDANCE. 

1.  Will  he  lend  me  one  thousand  dollars? 

2.  Will  you  go  with  me  ? 

8.  Will  you  take  a  piece  of  the  cake  ? 

4.  Wilt  thou  send  me  a  little  of  the  pudding  ? 

5.  Shall  I  send  you  a  piece  of  the  pie  ? 

6.  They  shall  fall  upon  you  in  anger. 

7.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

8.  Should  they  come,  we  shall  see  them. 

9.  He  shall  go,  and  that,  too,  in  haste. 

10.  If  he  should  return,  he  will  call  on  us. 

11.  I  wish  that  he  would  come  back. 

Note. — Shall,  and  will  are  the  only  verbs  which  uniformly  have 
the  future  tense.  Would,  and  should  may  have  this  tense  in  in- 
stances like  the  above,  in  which  these  words  are  introduced. 


6.    PRIOR-FUTURE   TENSE. 

The  prior-future  tense  is  the  time-expressing  power  which 
a  verb  exerts  in  representing  that  the  future  time  to  which 
allusion  is  made,  will  come  into  our  presence  before  another 
future  time  mentioned  in  another  mono ;  as, 

1.  [I  shall  liave  seen  them]  (by  ten  o'clock.) 

2.  [The  two  houses  will  have  finished  their  business  when] 
(the  king  shall  come  to  prorogue  them.) 


158  ECTOLOGY. 

I  have  taken  this  sentence  from  Murray.  I  have  placed 
shall  before  come,  because  the  accurate  expression  of  the 
time  intended,  seems  to  require  the  use  of  this  inceptive. 

The  prior-future  tense  lies  in  the  trone,  and  is  in  will 
have.      Will  expressing  the  futurity,  and  have  the  priority. 

[The  two  houses  will  have  finished  their  business  when] 
(the  king  shall  come  to  prorogue  them.) 


CONCORDANCE. 

1.  1  shall  have  dined  at  one  o'clock. 

2.  The  two  houses  will  have  finished  their  business  by  the  first 

of  March. 

3.  If  he  shall  have  come  by  seven  o'clock,  r.  m.,  we  shall  have 

seen  him  by  eight,  r.  m.,  of  the  same  day. 

Note. — It  may  not  be  improper  to  remark  here,  that  will,  and 
shall  mark  the  time  as  after  the  present  time — and  that  have,  marks 
it  as  prior  to  the  other  future  time  mentioned  in  the  same  sentence, 
though  in  a  different  mono.  Hence,  it  is  clear  that  shall,  and  have, 
or  will,  and  have,  must  both  be  employed  in  constituting  the  prior- 
future  tense. 


QUESTIONS. 

1 .  What  is  tense  ? 

2.  How  many  different  times   do   the  tenses   of  verbs  point 
out? 

3.  What  is  the  original  word  from  which  the  word,  tense,  is  de- 
rived ? 

4.  Of  what  is  tense  the  time-expressing  power  ? 

5.  Between  what  two  things  is  it  important  for  the  pupil  to 
make  a  distinction  ? 

6.  By  what  is  the  tense  of  the  verb  generally  indicated  ? 

7.  By  what  means  is  the  tense  often  varied  ? 

8.  Does  tense  ever  exist  in  verbs  which  have  no  form  indicative 
of  the  existence  of  this  time-expressing  power  ? 

9.  By  what  other  name  is  the  time-expressing  power  of  the  verb 
called?     (Tense.  ).^  ..  . 

10.  Upon  what  two  inceptive  verbs  is  the  English  language  almost 
entirely  dependent  for  the  expression  of  future  time  ? 

11.  From  what  do  the  tenses  of  the  verb  derive  their  distinctive 
names  ? 

12.  What  are  these  distinctive  names  ? 

13.  What  does  present  mean  ?     [Presence."] 

14.  What  does  re  mean  ?     [Again.  J 


ECTOLOGY.  159 

15.  What  does  re-present  signify  ?     [Present  again.] 

,    16.  What  does  past  mean  ?  [Gone  by,  gone  off,  left  us,  gone  out 
of  our  presence.] 

17.  What  does  prior  mean.     [Before.] 

18.  What  does  prior-past  mean?     [Passed  off  before  the  passed.] 

19.  What  does  futu re  mean? 

20.  What  does  prior-future  mean?     [Before  the  future.] 

Note. — The  word,  future,  is  here  used  technically.  The  word  as 
here  employed,  docs  not  mean  any  future  time,  but  the  future  time 
which  is  described  in  the  definition  of  the  future  tense. 

21.  What  may  be  seen  from  an  examination  of  the  following 
division  of  time  itself?     [Foot  of  page  148.] 

22.  Where  do  events  exist  ? 

23.  Is  time  divided  somewhat  as  nations  are  ? 

24.  Why  is  time  so  divided  by  the  verb  ? 

25.  What  is  the  name  of  the  power  by  which  verbs  divide  time 
into  six  parts  ? 

26.  What  is  present  time  ? 

27.  What  is  re-called  present  time  ? 

28.  What  time  is  this  day,  this  hour,  this  week,  this  age,  &c. 

29.  What  time  is  yesterday,  last  Monday,  last  week,  last  year,  the 
last  age,  &c. 

30.  What  time  is  1849? 

31.  What  time  is  1848? 

32.  What  time  is  1847  in  respect  to  1848? 

33.  What  time  is  next  Saturday  in  respect  to  next  Sunday  ? 
[Prior-future.  ] 

34.  What  time  is  next  Saturday  taken  by  itself  ?     [Future.] 

35.  What  time  is  next  Monday  in  relation  to  next  Tuesday  ? 

36.  What  time  is  next  Tuesday  without  regard  to  any  other 
day? 

37.  Is  present  time  long,  or  short? 

38.  Of  what  tense  is  am  in  the  following  sentences  ? — 

1.  I  am  that  I  am. 

2.  I  am  the  great  I  am. 

DoeB  am  here  mean  a  short,  or  a  long  time  ? 

39.  Of  what  tense  is  have  in  the  following  sentences  ? — 

1.  They  have  read  their  lessons. 

2.  We  have  three  apples. 

3.  Joseph  could  have  seen  me  last  evening. 

40.  What  is  the  past  tense  ? 

41.  What  is  the  prior-past  tense? 

42.  What  is  the  future  tense? 

43.  Is  there  a  difference  between  future  time,  and  future  tense  f 
[Great  difference:  time  in  the  thing  pointed  out;  but  tense  is  the 
means  by  which  it  is  pointed  out.     Tagc  148.] 


160  ECTOLOGY. 

44.  What  is  said  of  the  length  of  time  embraced  by  rides,  in 
Henry  rides  out  daily  ? 

45.  What  is  said  of  the  length  of  time  embraced  by  amt  in  \ 
am? 

46.  What  is  said  of  the  length  of  time  embraced  by  is,  in  Virtue 
is  commendable  ? 

47.  Does  the  final  verb  have  tense  ? 

48.  What  is  said  of  the  tense  of   solo   verbs  which  end  in  *,  cs, 
or  th? 

49.  What  is  said  of  medial  verbs  in  observation  6,  page  152  ? 

50.  What  is  said  in  regard  to  the  tense  of  solo  verbs  which  are 
used  in  their  primitive  state  ? 

51.  What  does  have,  as  a  medial  verb  exert  ? 

52.  Where  there  is  but  one  verb  in  the  demimono,  does  this  verb 
exert  its  present  tense  ? 

[It  is  proper  to  say  a  verb  exerts  its  present  tense,  for  tense  is 
power.] 

53.  Is  was  ever  of  the  present  tense  ? 

54.  Is  did  ever  present? 

55.  Is  had  ever  present  ? 

56.  Of  what  tense  is  had,  in  this  sentence  ? — 

John  had  learned  his  lesson  before  night. 


LESSON  X. 

TENSE   FORMS. 


The  tense  forms  are  the  indicative  modifications  which 
show  the  exertion  of  the  tense  of  the  verb  5  as,  *,  es}  th}  id, 
e,  a,  ty  Uj  d,  ed. 

FORMS   WHICH   INDICATE   THE   PASSED   TENSE. 

edy  a,  e,  i}  o,  t,  w,  id}  d. 

1.  Present — walk. 

2.  Passed — walked,   [erf.] 

3.  Present — bid. 

4.  Passed — bade,   [a  <?.] 

5.  Present — pay. 

6.  Passed— paid.  [id.~\ 


ECTOLOGY.  161 


7.  Present — blow. 

8.  Passed— blew.   [«."] 

9.  Present — do. 

10.  Passed— did.  [id.] 

11.  Present — get. 

12.  Passed — got.   [o.] 

13.  Present — leave. 

14.  Passed— left.   [t.] 

15.  Present — sting. 

16.  Passed — stwng.   [«.] 

17.  Present — am. 

18.  Passed — teas.   [was.] 

19.  Present — go. 

20.  Passed — went.   [went.] 

21.  Present — are. 

22.  Passed — were,  [were.] 


REMARKS. 

It  may  be  well  to  say  in  this  place,  that,  in  a  few  instances, 
other  letters  are  introduced.  They  are  used,  however,  merely  to 
give  admission  to  the  genuine  tense  letters;  they  are  not,  strictly 
speaking,  tense  in  themselves.  For  instance,  in  left,  we  have /with 
the  t.  But,  then,  /  is  a  mere  substitute  for  ave — this  substitution 
is  necessary  to  the  admission  of  t,  for  we  cannot  incorporate  t 
with  leave — leavet. 

It  may  be  well  enough  to  remark  here,  too,  that  went  is  the 
passed  of  go  ;  was  of  am;  and  were  of  are.  {New  words,  instead 
of  modifications  of  the  primitive  state.) 


DIVISION   OP   THE   PASSED   TENSE   FORMS. 

The  passed  tense  forms  of  the  verb  may  be  divided  into 
Regular ,  and  Irregular. 

1.  Regular.     [Common."] 
The  regular  passed  tense  form  is  constructed  from  ed;  as, 
loved,  walkec/,  debated. 

2.  Irregular. 

The  irregular  passed  tense  form  is  the  new  word,  or  the 
modifications  which  are  produced  in  the  radical  state  of  tho 
verb  by  incorporating  with,  or  casting  from  it,  one  or  more 
of  the  following  passed  tense  letters  : — a,  df  e}  i}  o,  tf  w,  w. 

14* 


162 


ECTOLOGY. 


SPECIMEN. 

1.  Walk,  a  verb  of  the  present  tense,  whose  passed  tense  is  indi- 

cated by  the  regular  passed  tense  form,  ed. 

2.  Went,  a  verb  of  the  passed  tense,  which  is  indicated  by  the 

irregular  form,  which  in  this  case  is  a  new  word  for 

go. 
N.  B. — This  short  specimen  should  be  examined  with  care  before 
the  following  Exercises,  which  should  be  disposed  of  exactly  ac- 
cording to  the  specimen,  are  touched  by  the  learner. 


EXERCISES. 

go  (went) 

punished  (ed) 

bid  (a  e) 

look  (ed) 

digged  (ed) 

bade  — 

shake  (oo) 

dig  (u,  ed) 

think  (ought) 

flow  (ed\ 

dug  — 

bring  (ought) 

cry  (ed) 

see  (aw) 

brought  — 

lie  (ay) 

saw  — 

feel  (0 

lay  (id) 

put  — 

felt  — 

say  (id) 

read  — 

speaks  (a  e) 

be  (was) 

rained  (ed) 

speak  (a  e) 
sing  (a) 

do  (id) 

snowed  (ed) 

am  (icas) 

fall  (e) 

sang  — 

lament  (ed) 
lamented  — 
behave  (ed) 
behaved  — 
returned  — 
repaid  — 
referred  — 
degraded  — 
dethroned  — 
immured  — 
translated  — 


LESSON  X. 

THE  TENSELESS   FORM   OF   VERBS. 

The  forms  of  verbs,  are  naturally  divided  into 

1.  Tense  forms,  and 

2.  Tenseless  forms. 


1.    TENSE   FORM. 

The  tense  form  of  a  verb  is  the  form  which  indicates 
the  exertion  of  one  of  the  six  time-expressing  powers  of  the 
verb;  as  Walk,  walks,  walketh,  walked;  Go,  went;  Be, 
was,  art,  trast ;  Write,  wrote. 


ECIOLOUY.  163 


TEN8ELES8    FORM. 

The  tenseless  form  of  a  verb  is  a  form  which  indicates  the 
nan-exertion  of  the  six  time-expressing  powers  of  the  verb  j 
as,  walking,  going,  gone,  been,  seeing,  writing,  written. 

TENSELESS   FORMS   OF   VERBS. 

writing  written 

loxing 

being  been 

rmtting 

HOW   FORMED. 

The  tenseless  forms  of  verbs  are  produced  by  incorporating 
o,  en,  ne,  n,  u,  or  ing,  either  with  the  radical  state,  or  with  the 
passed  tense  form  of  the  verb ;  as, 

1.  Written. 

2.  Gone. 

3.  Flown. 

4.  'Begun. 

5.  Going. 

DIVISION. 
The  tenseless  forms  of  verbs  are  divided  into 

1.  Be,  and 

2.  Be  and  Have. 

1 .  The  tenseless  Be  form  is  the  derivative,  ing. 

2.  The  Be  and  Have  tenseless  forms  are  en,  ne,  n,  u, 
and  o. 

1.    TENSELESS   BE   FORM. 

The  tenseless  Be  form  of  a  verb  is  the  derivative,  ing,  and 
is  incorporated  with  the  final  verb  in  the  series  where  some 
form  of  be  is  employed  as  an  inceptive,  or  as  a  medial  verb ; 
as, 

1.  Jane  will  be  coming. 

2.  James  is  writing. 

3.  Charles  has  been  laugh  ing. 

4.  Thou  art  residing. 
6.  We  are  walking. 


164  ECTOLOGY. 


2.  tenseless  be   and  have   FORM. 

The  Be  and  Have  tenseless  form  of  a  verb  is  the  derivative 
deflection  which  is  incorporated  with  a  verb  where  some  form 
of  Be,  or  Have  is  employed  as  an  inceptive,  or  as  a  medial 
verb;  as, 

1.  I  have  written,   [en-"] 

2.  Thon  hast  gone  too  far.   [ne.~\ 

3.  He  had  forsake?*-  us.   [en.] 


LESSON  XII. 

DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


A  defective  verb  is  one  which  has  not  all  the  forms  com- 
mon to  the  class  to  which  the  defective  verb  belongs;  as 
Bet,  Burst,  Forecast,  Put,  Let. 

These  words  belong  to  the  class  of  solo  verbs;  but  they 
have  not  all  the  forms  which    solo  verbs  in  general  possess. 

1.  Write  is  a  solo  verb,  and  has  these  forms:  write, 
writes,  ivritest,  writeth,  wrote,  wrotest,  written,  writing. 

2.  Bet  is  a  solo  verb,  and  has  but  these  forms :  bet,  bets, 
bettest,  betteth,  betting. 

I     3.  Burst  is  a  solo  verb,  and  has  these  forms  only :  burst, 
bursts,  burstest,  bursteth,  bursting. 

Burst  has  no  passed  tense  form  :  Burst  has  no  Have 
and  Be  form.  Hence,  when  have,  or  be  is  used  before  burst, 
burst  must  be  used  in  its  primitive  form ;  as,  The  boiler  will 
soon  be  burst,  [not  bursted.] 

Write. 
Write  has  a  passed  tense  form  which  is  wrote.    Write  has 
the  Be  and  Have  tenseless  form  common  to    solo  verbs. 
I  wrote  last  evening ;  I  liave  written. 

1.  The  passed  tense  form  of  write — wrote. 

2.  The  tenseless  Be  form  of  write — He  will  be  writing. 

3.  The  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form  of  write — Be  writte>?; 
Have  written.  * 


LCTOLOtiY. 


165 


REMARKS. 

The  following  presentation  of  defective  verbs  is  designed  to  aid 
the  pupil  in  comprehending  several  important  Rules  in  Syntax, 
intended  to  guide  him  in  the  use  of  these  verbs.  And  should  he 
not  become  familiar  with  these  facts  as  here  presented,  he  will  be 
utterly  unable  to  apply  the  Rules  to  which  his  attention  will  soon 
be  directed. 

The  following  defective  verb  has  no  form  but  its  primitive  state, 
in  which  it  is  employed  in  all  cases : 

Beware. 

1.  This  defective  verb  may  be  final;  as,  You  should  beware  of 
excess  in  all  things. 

2.  Beware  may  be  a  solo  verb  if  used  in  the  imperative  cordic- 
tion ;  as,  Beware  ye  of  false  prophets. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS 

That  have  the  tenseless  Bnfar?n;  but  which  have  no  passed  tense  form, 
nor  any  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form. 

[These  verba  substitute  their  primitive  state  for  the  forms  of  which  they  axe 
destitute.] 


Had  beset 
Is  besetting 
Have  bespread 
Was  bespreadm^ 


Has  cut 
Was  cutting 
Hath  shut 
-lm  shutting 
Have  split 
Be  split 
Were  splitting 

Have  let 
Been  let 
Was  letting 


Hadst  put 
Been  put 
Be  putting 


Hast  rid 
Be  ridding 
Hadst  set 
Am  setting 

Has  dispread 
Was  dispread 
Was  dispreadmj 
Have  forecast 
Are  forecast 
Were  forecasting 
Had  thrust 
Be  thrust 
Be  thrust?'««7 
Hath  shred 
Was  shred 
7*  shredding 
Has  sweat 
Was  sweat 
Is  sweating 


Hath  shed 
Are  shedding 
Had  burst 
Was  bursty 
Been  cast 
Been  casting 
Hadst  hit 
Am  hit 
It  hittm^r 
Has  hurt 
Was  hurt 
Were  hurting 
Had  knit 
Be  knit 
Be  knitting 
Had  spread 
Were  spread 
Are  spreading 
Have  wet 
Was  wet 
Are  wetting 


166  ECTOLOGY. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  primitive  state  of  tvrites?     [Write.] 

2.  What  is  the  primitive  state  of  puts?     [Put.] 

3.  Wherein  does  write  differ  from  put  ? 

{Write  andjou*  are  both  primitive  forms :  but,  then,  write  will  not 
receive  either  have,  or  be  before  it ;  for  we  cannot  say,  have  write, 
was  write.  But  we  can  say  have  put,  was  put.  Indeed,  we  can  say 
nothing  else.) 

4.  What  do  you  understand  by  have,  and  be  ? 

Have  means  have  in  all  of  its  forms ;  as,  had,  hath,  hadst,  has 
hast,  having.  Be  means  be  in  all  of  its  forms;  as,  am,  art,  was,  werct 
is,  wast,  are,  were,  been,  being. 

5.  What  is  the  tenseless  Be  form  of  a  verb  ? 

[The  tenseless  Be  form  is  the  derivative  suffix,  ing,  and  is  affixed 
to  a  final  verb  before  which  be,  in  one  of  its  forms  comes ;  as, 
They  will  be  coming ;  They  are  writm<?.] 

This  form,  ing,  is  called  tenseless  because  it  is  a  form  which  indi- 
cates the  non-exertion  of  every  time-expressing  power  in  the  verb  to 
which  it,  ing,  belongs ;  as,  John  is  -writing. 

Here,  the  time  is  pointed  out  by  is ;  this  is  obvious  from  the 
consideration  that  the  use  of  was  before  writing,  would  change  the 
time  from  the  present  to  the  passed: 

1.  John  is  "writing. 

2.  John  was  writing. 

I  know  that  the  old  Grammars  call  ing  the  present  participle ! 

6.  Why  is  ing  styled  the  Be  form  ?  [Because  ing  can  never  be 
used  with  any  verb  which  is  not  preceded  directly,  or  indirectly 
by  Be.] 

7.  What  is  the  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form  of  a  verb  ? 

The  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form  of  a  verb,  is  the  derivative  form 
which  is  incorporated  with  a  final  verb  when  some  form  of  Be  or 
Have  is  employed  before  it ;  as, 

1.  I  have  written. 

2.  He  has  forsaken  us. 

3.  It  is  written. 

4.  The  saddle  will  have  been  done. 

5.  Thou  hast  gone  too  far. 

6.  They  had  smitten. 

7.  They  will  be  smitten. 

8.  Why  is  this  tenseless  form  denominated  Be  and  Have  ?  [Be- 
cause this  form  is  produced  by  these  two  verbs — be,  have.] 


ECTOLOGY.  167 

9.  Does  not  be  produce  the  ing  form  ?  [Yes  :  but  have  never 
produces  the  ing  form.  We  cannot  say,  have  writing,  had  walk- 
ing.     We  say,  be  writing,  was  walking.] 

10.  Do  you  see,  then,  that  ing  is  not  a  Be  and  Have  form  of  the 
verb? 

11.  Do  you  see  that  ing  is  a  Be  form  ? 

12.  Do  you  see  that  en  is  a  Be  and  Have  form?  [Be  written, 
Have  written.] 

REMARKS. 

1.  Inceptive  verbs  have  no  tenseless  forms. 

2.  All  verbs,  except  those  which  are  always  inceptive, 
have  the  tenseless  Be  form ;  as,  heing,  having,  willing. 

3.  Many  final  verbs  have  no  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form  ; 
as,  put,  beset,  shred,  loved,  walked,  leave,  make,  meant, 
wrung. 

4.  All  final  verbs  which  are  without  the  tenseless  Be  and 
Have  form,  must  be  used  in  their  primitive  state,  in  their 
passed  tense,  or  in  their  tenseless  Be  form,  when  have,  or  be 
falls  directly  before  them ;  as,  I  have  put  up  the  book ;  They 
had  walk^Z  off;  The  horse  had  been  walked  slowly;  We 
had  f*id  the  debt;  Joseph  has  been  writmy. 


REMARKS. 

1.  The  verb,  cost,  is  a  legitimate  member  of  this  class  of  defec- 
tive verbs — but  the  sense  of  this  word  will  not  allow  us  to  use  Be 
with  it,  unless  we  give  the  word  the  Tenseless  Be  form ;  as,  Was 
costing ;  Be  costing ;  This  job  is  costing  too  much  money ;  Thy 
extravagance  is  costing  father  too  much. 

We  cannot  say,  however,   *Ht5,S 

The  hat  was  cost  too  much. 

The  apples  have  been  cost  too  much. 

2.  Although  bid,  knit,  and  slit  are  not  of  this  class  of  defective 
verbs,  they  are  often  used  as  though  they  are.  It  is  common  to 
find  have  bid,  for  have  bidden :  nor  is  it  unusual  to  find,  I  bid  him 
last  evening,  for  I  bade  him  last  evening. 

8.  Although  knit  has  the  regular  passed  tense  form,  it  often  uses 
its  primitive  state  for  this  form ;  as,  They  have  knit  several  hours  ; 
The  yarn  is  all  knit  up. 

[They  have  knitted  several  hours ;  The  yarn  is  all  knitted  up.] 

4.  Quit  is  often  used  for  quitted;  as,  We  quit  last  evening  at 
seven  o'clock. 

[We  quitted.'] 


168 


ECTOLOGY. 


5.  Slit  has  the  regular  passed  tense  form,  but  is  not  unfrequently 
used  after  have,  and  be  in  its  primitive  state  ;  as,  We  have  slit  the 
iron  bars  into  nail  rods  ;   This  dog's  ear  has  been  slit. 

[We  have  slitted;  This  dog's  ear  has  been  slitted.] 

The  English  language  is  full  of  these  obliquities  from  its  own 
principles,  from  its  ownself.  That  they  are  the  offspring  of  igno- 
rance, is  beyond  doubt.  Still,  as  long  usage  is  on  their  side,  they 
have  become  strong,  if  not  comely.  We  have  heard,  "  He  lit  the 
candle,"  too  long  to  substitute  lighted  for  lit.  When  vice  turns 
virtue  out  of  doors  under  the  sanction  of  the  professed  preachers  of 
virtue,  it  soon  becomes  difficult  to  tell  virtue  from  vice,  or  vice  from 
virtue  ! 

6.  Although  beat  is  not  destitute  of  the  Be  and  Have  form,  we 
generally  find  it  after  these  verbs  without  this  form.  Been  beat; 
Have  beat. 

[Been  beaten;  Have  beaten."] 


QUESTION. 

Is  the  regular  passed  tense  form  of  a  verb  a  Be  and  Have  form  ? 
[The  genuine  Be  and  Have  form  of  a  verb  is  a  tenseless  form.  Hence 
the  passed  tense  form  of  a  verb,  whether  regular,  or  irregular,  is  not 
a  genuine  Be  and  Have  form.  Still,  Be  and  Have  may  always  be 
used  before  any  verb  to  which  the  regular  passed  tense  form  is  actu- 
ally affixed  ;  as,  These  plates  have  been  engraved 


I.  Verbs 

Which  not  only  possess  the  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form,  but  the  regular 
passed  tense  form. 

[Although  the  regular  passed  tense  form  of  a  verb  may  always 
be  substituted  for  the  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form,  yet  the  tenseless 
Be  and  Have  form  can  never  be  substituted  for  the  regular  passed 
tense  form.  We  can  say,  They  have  sau-cd  the  wood:  but  we  can- 
not say,  They  sawn  the  wood.  We  must  use  the  regular  passed 
tense,  They  saweo?  the  wood.] 


"resent  Tense. 

Passed  Tense  form. 

grave 

have  graved 

engrave 

is  engraved 

hew 

hewed 

load 

loaded 

mow 

mowed 

rive 

rived 

saw 

sawed 

had  graven 
%vas  engraven 

hewn 

laden 

mown 

riven 

sawn 


ECTOLOGY. 

shape 
shave 
shear 
show 

shaped 
shaved 
sheared 
showed 

shapen 
shaven 
shorn 
shown 

sow 

strow,  or  strew 

swell 

thrive 

wax 

sowed 

strow,  or  strewed 

swelled 

thrived 

waxed 

II.  Verbs 

»  sown 
"  strewn 
swollen 
thriven 
waxen 

169 


That  have  the  Irregular  passed  tense  form  which  they  substitute  for  a 
tenseless  Be  and  Have  form. 


Present. 

Irregular  Passed  Tense  form. 

Present. 

Irregular  Passed  Tense  form. 

abide 

have  abode 

pay 

had  paid 

behold 

is  beheld 

read 

was  read 

bend 

bent 

rend 

rent 

beseech 

besought 

ride 

rode 

bind 

bound 

say 

said 

bleed 

bled 

seek 

sought 

breed 

bred 

sell 

sold 

bring 

brought 

send 

sent 

buy 

bought 

shoe 

shod 

cling 

clung 

shoot 

shot  • 

dare 

durst 

shrink 

shrunk 

dwell 

dwelt 

sink 

sunk 

feed 

fed 

sit 

sat 

feel 

felt 

sleep 

slept 

fight 

fought 

sling 

slung 

find 

found 

slink 

slunk 

flee 

fled 

speed 

sped 

fling 

flung 

spend 

spent 

get 

got 

spin 

spun 

grind 

ground 

stand 

stood 

hang 

hung 

stick 

stuck 

have 

had 

sting 

stung 

hear 

heard 

stink 

stunk 

hold 

held 

sweep 

swept 

keep 

kept 

swing 

swung 

lay 

laid 

teach 

taught 

lead 

led 

tell 

told 

leave 

left 

think 

thought 

lend 

lent 

weep 

wept 

lose 

lost 

win 

won 

make 

made 

wind 

wound 

mean 

meant 

wring 

wrung 

meet 

met 

15 


170 


ECTOLOGY. 


III.  Verbs 

That  have  both  the  regular,  and  the  irregular  passed  tense  form, 
no  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form. 


but 


[These  verbs  substitute  the  regular,  or  the  irregular  passed  tense  form  for  a 
tenseless  Be  and  Hate  form ;  as,  Me  have  ye  bereaved  of  my  children — or,  Me  ye  have 
bereft  of  my  children. — Genesis,  xlii.] 

N.  B.  It  is  right  also  to  use  these  forms  without  have,  and  be ;  as,  Me  ye  bereaved 
of  my  goods ;  Me  ye  bereft  of  my  substance. 

Present.  Regular  Passed  Tense  form.  Irregular  Passed  Tense  form.  Tenseless  Be  form. 


bereave 

have  bereaved 

have  bereft 

were  bereaving 

build 

is  builded 

is  built 

are  building 

catch 

catched 

caught 

catching 

clothe 

clothed 

clad 

clothing 

deal 

dealed 

dealt 

dealing 

dig 

digged 

dug 

digging 

gild 

gilded 

gilt 

gilding 

gird 

girded 

girt 

girding 

kneel 

kneeled 

knelt 

kneeling 

shine 

shined 

shone 

shining 

work 

worked 

wrought 
REMARKS. 

working 

1.  Hang  and  dare  are  not  of  this  class.  Hang,  to  hang  up,  is 
not  capable  of  receiving  ed,  the  regular  passed  tense  form.  And 
hang,  to  take  away  life  by  hanging,  always  has  the  regular  passed 
tense  form ;  as,  The  robber  was  hanged. 

2.  Hare,  to  venture,  is  not  regular ;  hence  it  cannot  have  the 
regular,  and  the  irregular  passed  tense  form.  We  do  not  say,  He 
dared  go  ;  but,  He  durst  go. 

And  dare,  to  challenge,  is  regular  without  the  power  to  be  other- 
wise. We  do  not  say,  They  durst  us  to  meet  them ;  but,  they  dared 
us  to  meet  them. 


IV.  Verbs 

Which  have  the  irregular  passed  tense  form,  and  the  tenseless  Be  and 
Have  form  ;  but  tohich  often  substitute  their  primitive  state  for  their 
tenseless  Be  and  Have  form. 


Primitive  state. 

Passed  Tense  form. 

Tenseless  Have  and  Be  form. 

beat 

beat* 

beaten 

bid 

bade 

bidden 

forbid 

forbade 

forbidden 

*  Beat  has  no  passed  tense  form  except  its  radical  state  which  is  as  often  pro- 
sent  as  passed. 


ECTOLOGY. 


171 


It  Is  proper  to  say  hare  bitl,  or  have  bidden.    But  it  Is  not  proper  to  s*y,  Hvr* 
bade.    Nor  is  it  proper  to  say,  We  then  bid  hilU  to  go.    BUI  is  not  the  passed  f 
form.    We  then  bade  him  to  go,  is  right. 


V.  Verbs 

Which  have  the  irregular  passed  tense  form,  and  the  tenseless  Be  and 
Have  form,  hut  which  often  substitute  their  passed  tense  form  for 
their  tenseless  Be  and  Have  form. 


Pr>sarf. 


Irregular  Passed  Tense  form.    Tenseless  Bi  and  Kxvtform. 


bite 

cleave  (to  split) 

chide 

forget 

hide 

spit 


been  bit 
was   cleft 
is  chid 

art  forgot 

are  hid 
have  spat 


been  bitten 
was  cloven 

is  chidden 
art  forgotten 
are  hidden 
have  spitten 


QUESTION. 

Wherein  does  bite  differ  from  bid?  \Have,  and  Be  may  be  used 
before  the  passed  tense  of  bite ;  The  ehild  has  been  bit. 

But  neither  have,  nor  be  can  be  used  before  the  passed  tense  of 
lad.     W-e  cannot  say,  The  child  has  been  bade  to  go.] 


VI.  Verbs 

That  have  the  irregular  passed  tense  form,  and  the  tenseless  Be  and 
HxvRj'orM  which  they  never  exchavgefor  any  other. 


Present. 

Irregular  Passed  Tense  form. 

Tenseless  Be  and  ITave/o 

awake 

awoke 

hast  awaken 

bear  (to 
bear  (to 

carry) 

bore 

art  borne 

iringjorth) 

bare 

born 

begin 

began 

begun 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break' 

broke 

broken 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

come 

came 

come 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drive 

drove 

driven 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

172 


l 

ECTOLOGY. 

Present 

Irregular  Passed  Tense  form. 

Tenseless  Be  and  Have  form. 

give 

gave 

having  given     , 

go 

went 

being  gone 

grow 

grew 

grown 

know 

knew 

known 

lie 

lay 

lain 

partake 

partook 

partaken 

rise 

rose 

risen 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

sing 

sang 

sung 

slay 

slew 

slain 

slide 

slid 

slidden 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

strive 

strove 

striven 

swear 

swore 

t               sworn 

take 

took 

taken 

tear 

tore 

torn 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

thread 

trod 

trodden 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

woven 

write 

wrote 

written 

be 

was 

been* 

am 

was 

been 

art 

wast 

been 

are 

were 

been 

LESSON  XIII. 
NUMERDICTION   OP   NOUNS,   AND  PRONOUNS. 

The  numerdiction  of  nouns,  and  pronouns,  is  the  expres- 
sion of  number — unity,  and  plurality.  [Numeros,  number, 
and  dictio,  speech,  expression  of  thoughts.] 

The  numerdiction  of  nouns,  and  pronouns,  are 

1.  Uni,  and 

2.  Plus. 


Been  is  only  the  Ten, 


Have  form  of  fee.  We  cannot  say.  Be  been,  is  been. 


ECTOLOO.Y.  173 

1.  The  Uni  numerdiction  is  the  expression  of  unity  winch 
may  belong  either  to  an  individual  thing,  or  to  a  collection, 
or  class  of  things ;  as,  pen,  it,  I,  book,  father  in  law,  court, 
jury,  school,  family,  committee. 

That  these  nouns  express  unity  may  be  seen  by  placing  one  be- 
fore them ;  as,  one  pen,  one  book,  one  father,  one  law,  one  court, 
one  school,  one  family,  one  committee. 

2.  The  Plus  numerdiction  is  the  expression  of  plurality 
in  the  same  word ;  as,  pens,  they,  we,  books,  fatliers  in  law, 
courts,  juries,  schools,  families,  laics,  committees. 

Hitherto,  the  subject  of  nouns  of  multitude,  has  not  been  well  understood,  and, 
of  course,  not  clearly  presented  to  the  mind  of  the  student.  That  these  nouns 
are  not  rendered  peculiar  from  the  fact  that  they  denote  bodies  which  are  made 
up  of  different  parts,  or  from  the  fact  that  they  comprise  numerous  members, 
amy  be  rendered  quite  obvious  to  all  who  have  minds,  capable  of  comprehending 
imple  principles,  and  plain  truths.  It  is  said  that  the  word,  jury,  is  a  collective 
noun,  a  noun  of  multitude.  Is  the  prototype,  the  thing  denoted  by  the  word, 
jury,  composed  of  many  members,  or  parts  ?  So  is  the  prototype,  of  the  word, 
hand.  A  jury  may  comprise  six  men;  a  jury  may  comprise  twelve  men;  and  a 
jury  may  comprise  twenty-four  men.  A  hand  comprises  five  nails,  four  fingers, 
on*  thumh,  many  joints,  many  arteries,  many  veins,  and  many  bones.  If,  then, 
the  word,  jury,  is  a  collective  name,  a  noun  of  multitude,  because  its  prototype  com- 
prises many  parts,  certainly  the  word,  hand,  is  a  collective  name,  a  noun  of  mul- 
titude. 

Family  is  said  to  be  a  noun  of  multitude,  while  book  is  excluded  from  this 
cla*w.  Yet  there  are  very  few  families  that  comprise  as  many  members  as  a  book. 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  find  a  family  that  is  composed  of  more  than  thirty  parts, 
or  members ;  yet  it  is  equally  hard  to  find  a  book  which  is  made  up  of  so  few 
parts,  members,  or  pages.  A  family  is  one  thing  made  up  of  parts — a  book  is  one 
thing  made  up  of  parts — a  jury  is  one  thing  made  up  of  parts— a  tree  is  one  thing 
niade  up  of  parts — a  church  is  one  thing  made  up  of  parts — a  minute  is  one  thing 
made  up  of  parts.  Is  the  church  composed  of  sixty  parts,  or  members,  so  is  th<» 
minute.  The  word,  minute,  then,  is  as  much  a  noun  of  multitude,  as  is  the  word, 
church. 

It  may  be  said  that  as  the  members  of  a  jury,  Ac.,  are  distinct  individuals,  It  is 
hardly  just  to  consider  them  as  bearing  the  same  relation  to  the  jury,  which  the 
fingers,  .v<-..  bear  to  the  hand.  True,  a  man  is  a  distinct  whole  ;  but  he  is  also  a 
in.  rr  part.  John  is  a  whole  human  being — but  he  is  not  a  whole  jury — he  is  a 
mere  part  of  a  jury.  Every  finger  is  a  whole,  abstractly  considered ;  but  in  refer- 
ence to  the  hand,  every  finger  is  a  mere  part.  John  is  a  part  of  a  jury — a  finger 
is  a  part  of  a  hand. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  numerdiction  of  a  noun  ? 

2.  What  is  the  numerdiction  of  a  pronoun? 

3.  Of  what  numerdiction  is  man?  [£7m.] 

4.  Of  what  numerdiction  is  men?  [iVu*.] 
6.  Of  what  numerdiction  is  it  f 

6.  Of  what  numerdiction  is  we  ? 

7.  Is  we  of  the  noun,  or  of  the  pronoun  denomination  ? 

8.  What  is  the  etymology  of  the  word,  numerdiction. 


174  ECTOLOGY. 

LESSON  XIV. 
RELADICTION   OF   NOUNS,   AND   PRONOUNS. 

The  reladiction  of  nouns,  and  pronouns,  is  the  expression 
of  the  relations  which  must  be  ascribed  to  things  to  form 
speech. 

The  reladictions  are, 

1.  Pros-o-chist, 

2.  Pros-o-theme, 

3.  Par-e-theme,    and 

4.  Panta-theme. 

1.  The  pros-o-chist  reladiction  is  the  indication  which  is 
made  by  the  form,  or  punctuation  of  a  literal  noun,  or  by 
the  intonation  of  a  vocal  one,  that  the  person  denoted  by 
the  noun  is  the  pros-o-chist,  the  attentionist,  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  as,  Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son  which 
hath  a  dumb  spirit.     [Master. ~\ 

Thou,  God,  seest  me.     [God.~\ 

In  a  few  cases  the  pros-o-chist  reladiction  is  found  in  a  pro- 
noun; as,  0,  ye,  of  little  faith.  That  is,  0,  ye,  who  are  of  little 
faith.     [Ye.] 

2.  The  pros-o-theme  reladiction  is  the  indication  by  a  pro- 
noun, that  the  pros-o-chist  is  presented  to  his  own  notice, 
and,  consequently,  that  he  bears  an  objective,  or  a  theme  rela- 
tion to  himself;  as,  Master,  I  have  brought  my  son  unto 
thee.     [Thee.]     (Page  107.)  - 

3.  The  par-e-theme  reladiction  is  the  indication  by  &  pro- 
noun, that  the  par-e-theme  presents  himself  to  the  notice  of 
the  pros-o-chist,  (attentionist,)  and,  consequently,  that  he 
bears  a  theme  relation  to  the  pros-o-chist;  as,  Master,  /have 
brought  my  son. 

The  par-e-iheme  here  presents  himself  to  the  notice  of  the  pros-o- 
chist.  Master,  /have  brought.  That  is,  Look  on  me,  Master,  as 
the  bringer  of  the  son  unto  thee. 

4.  The  panta-theme  reladiction  is  the  indication  made  by 
nouns,  and  pronouns,  that  the  object  presented  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  pros-o-chist  is  nothing  but  an  object — nothing 


EOTOLOGY. 


175 


bat  a  theme  ;  as,  Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son 
vliith  hath  a  dumb  qiirit.  [Son,  which,  and  spirit.']  (See 
foot-note,  page  108.) 

Moses  smote  the  rock  with  his  rod. 


ILLUSTRATION. 

The  following  cut  is  designed  to  illustrate  the  four  relations  which  the 
things  mentioned,  or  implied  in  every  sentence,  must  bear  to  one  another. 


thou 
thee 


%trit  son  who 

Moses  as 

rock-*%,  . 

j    Viv  he 

rod     sm  i  ■ 

^1|\  him 

which  \  Vl  that 


QUESTIONS. 


1.  TYhat  are  distinctive  powers  ?     [Page  107.] 
"1.  Under  what  two  general  denominations  do  all  the  thing9 
mentioned,  or  implied,  fall?     [Page  107.] 

3.  Of  what  is  the  word,  pros-o-chist,  compounded  ?  [Page  107.] 

4.  What  is  the  pros-o-chist?     [Page  107.] 

5.  From  what  is  the  word,  theme,  made?     [Page  107.] 


176  ECTOLOQY. 

G.  How  are  the  themes  which  are  presented  to  the  notice  of  the 
pros-o-chist,  divided?     [Page  107.] 

7.  What  is  the  par-e-theme  ?     [Page  107.] 

8.  From  what  is  the  prefix  part  of  par-e-theme  made  ? 

9.  What  is  the  pros-o-theme  ?     [Page  107.] 

10.  What  part  of  pros-o-chist  is  the  prefix  part  of  ^roa-o-theme  ? 
[Page  107.] 

11.  Thee  is  not  used  for  what?     [Page  107.] 

12.  Thee  is  used  for  what?     [Page  107.] 

13.  What  is  the  panta-theme  t     [Page  108.] 

14.  What  objects  illustrate  the  panta-theme?     [Page  108.] 
1      15.  What  is  the  meaning  of  panta?     [Page  108.] 

16.  What  word  expresses  the  pros-o-chist  in  the  following  sen- 
tence ? — 

Master,  I  have  brought  my  son  unto  thee  which  hath  a  dumb 
spirit. 

17.  Of  what  reladiction  is  I? 

18.  Of  what  reladiction  is  thee? 

19.  Of  what  reladiction  are  son,  which,  and  spirit? 

20.  What  is  the  pros-o-chist  reladiction  ? 

21.  What  is  the  panta-theme  reladiction? 

22.  What  is  the  pros-o-theme  reladiction  ? 

23.  What  is  the  par-e-theme  reladiction  ? 

24.  Do  you  understand  the  cut  which  is  intended  to  illustrate 
the  subject  of  the  different  themes  and  reladictions ? 


LESSON  XV. 
GENEDICTION. 


Genediction  is  the  expression  of  the  gender  of  animals. 

[Latin,  genus,  Greek,  genos,  sex,  gender,  and  dictio,  expression.  ] 

Genediction  is  divided  into  Masculin,  Feminin,  Amhl, 
and  Mute. 

1.  The  masculin  genediction  is  the  expression  of  the  male 
gender;  as,  man,  ox,  lad,  uncle,  nephew. 

2.  The  feminin  genediction  is  the  expression  of  the  female 
gender ;  as,  woman,  cow,  lass,  aunt,  niece. 

3.  The  ambi  genediction  is  the  expression  of  both  genders 
in  one  noun;  as,  His  parents  are  dead. 


ECTOLOGY. 


177 


4.  The  mute  genediction  is  the  silence  of  the  noun  respect- 
ing the  gender  of  the  animal  j  as,  A  person  went  by  us  in 
haste. 


NE-0   GENEDICTION. 

The  ne-o  genediction  is  the  want  of  any  expression  of 
gender,  because  the  thing  has  no  gender;  as  book,  pen, 
table. 

Note. — In  cases  of  the  mute  genediction,  there  is  a  sex,  which  is 
not  expressed.  But  in  instances  of  the  ne-o  genediction,  there  is 
no  gender  to  be  expressed. 


REMARKS. 

1.  Generally,  the  noun  itself  marks  the  gender;  as,  heir,  heiress, 
poet,  poetess. 

2.  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  give  utterance  to  the  gen- 
der ;  as,  a  he  goat,  a  she  goat,  a  cock  sparrow,  a  hen  sparrow,  a 
man  servant,  a  maid  servant. 

Where  the  adjective  expresses  the  gender  of  the  animal  denoted 
by  the  noun,  the  noun  itself  is  of  the  mute  genediction ;  as,  male 
relations. 

Male  is  an  adjective  of  the  masculin  genediction. 

Relations  is  a  noun  of  the  mute  genediction. 

8.  Sometimes  the  opponent  genders  are  expressed  by  different 
words;  as,  husband,  wife.  r 

4.  In  many  instances  the  rational  method  is  adopted — the  same 
word  is  used  under  two  genedictive  forms  ;  as,  host,  hostess,  prophet, 
prophetess,  count,  countess. 


NOUNS 
Having  two  genedictive  forms. 


latculin. 

Fuminin. 

Masculin. 

Feminin. 

heir 

heiress 

poet 

poetess 

host 

hostess 

h    prophet 

prophetess 

count 

countess 

tiger 

tigress 

Jew 

Jewess 

hunter 

huntress 

peer 

peeress 

songster 

songstress 

prince 

princess 

seamster 

seamstress 

shepherd 

shepherdess 

arbiter 

arbi  tress 

baron 

baroness 

enchanter 

enchantress 

deacon 

deaconess 

tailor 

tailoress 

rs 

ECTOLOGY. 

Masculin. 

Feminin. 

Masculin. 

Feminin. 

lion 

lioness 

director 

directress 

patron 

patroness 

votary 

votaress 

actor 

actress 

viscount 

viscountess 

author 

authoress 

hero 

heroine 

tutor 

tutoress 

landgrave 

landgravine 

traitor 

traitoress 

widower 

widow 

conductor 

conductress 

sultan 

sultana 

emperor 

empress 

czar 

czarina 

elector 

electress 

bridegroom 

bride 

governor 

governess 

testator 

testatrix 

protector 

protectress 

executor 

executrix 

ambassador 

ambassadress 

administrator 

administratrix 

female 

male 

NOUNS 
Having  but  one  genedictive  form. 


Masculin. 

Feminin. 

Masculin. 

Feminin. 

lad 

lass 

bull 

COW 

boy 

girl 

bullock 

heifer 

son 

daughter 

horse 

mare 

beau 

belle 

cock 

hen 

king 

queen 

drake 

duck 

lord 

lady 

gander 

goose 

earl 

countess 

husband 

wife 

buck 

doe 

father 

mother 

uncle 

aunt 

brother 

sister 

nephew 

niece 

master 

mistress 

monk 

nun 

sloven 

slut 

hart 

roe 

wizard 

witch 

stag 

hind 

bachelor 

maid 

sire 

dam 

man 

woman 

he 

she 

him 

her 

PRONOUNS   AND   NOUNS 
Prefixed  to  nouns  to  express  the  gender  of  the  beings  denoted  by  the  nouns. 


he 

man 

male 


she 

maid 

female 


ECTOLOGY. 


179 


APPLICATION. 


He  goat 
He  bear 
Cock  sparrow 
Man  servant 
Male  child 
Male  relations 
Male  descendants 


She  goat 
She  bear 
Hen  sparrow 
Maid  servant 
Female  child 
Female  relations 
Female  descendants 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  genediction? 

2.  How  many  genedictions  belong  to  nouns,  and  pronouns  ? 

3.  What  is  the  masculin  genediction? 

4.  What  is  the  feminin  genediction  ? 

5.  What  is  the  mute  genediction  ? 

6.  What  is  the  ambi  genediction  ? 

7.  What  nouns  have  the  ne-o  genediction  ? 

8.  In  what  does  the  mute  genediction  differ  from  the  ne-o  gene- 
diction ? 

9.  Do  some  nouns  have  different  forms  for  different  genders  ? 

10.  By  what  affix  are  these  nouns  modified  to  enable  them  to 
express  the  female  gender  ?    [ess.] 

11.  Are  there  any  instances  in  which  the  two  genders  are  ex- 
pressed by  different  nouns  ? 

[Give  some.] 

12.  Is  a  prefix  noun,  or  a  prefix  pronoun  ever  used  to  express 
the  gender  of  the  animal  denoted  by  the  main  word  ? 

13.  Are  adjectives  ever  used  to  express  the  gender  of  the  crea- 
tures denoted  by  the  nouns  which  are  mute  respecting  the  exact 
sex? 


I.  Pronouns  of  the  Par-e-thenu 

t  Reladiction. 

Cm. 

Rut. 

'  I 

we 

who 

who 

1.  Cordictitb 

whoever 

whoever 

whosoever 

whosoever 

that 

that 

'  me 

us 

whom 

whom 

2.  Uncobdictiyb 

whomsoever 

whomsoever 

that 

that 

myself 

ourselves 

180 


1.    COEDICTIVE 


2.  Uncoedictive  - 


ECTOLOGY. 

the  Pros-o-theme  Reladiction. 

Uni. 

Fkis. 

r  thou 

ye 

who    - 

who 

whoever 

whoever 

whosoever 

whosoever 

that          ? 

that 

(  thou 

you 

'  thee 

you 

thyself 

yourselves 

whom 

whom 

whomsoever 

whomsoever 

that 

that 

which 

which 

III.     Pronouns  of  the  Panta-theme  Reladiction. 


1.    COEDICTIVE 


Uni. 


he  I 
she  l 
it     J 


2.  Uncoedictive  . 


Plus. 


they 


who 

who 

whoever 

whoever 

whosoever 

whosoever 

that 

that 

which 

which 

as 

as 

one 

ones 



others 

that 



him  "J 

her    L 

them 

it       J 

himself  ^ 

herself     [■ 

themselves 

itself       J 

whom 

whom 

whomsoever 

whomsoever 

that 

that 

which 

which 

as 

as 

one 

ones 

one  another 

others 

each  other* 

others 

so 

_ 

that 



*  EacJi,  other,  and  another  are  adjectives.  But  each  other,  and  one  another  are 
uncnrdictive  pronouns.  When  so  is  a  pronoun  it  is  uncordictiye ;  as,  I  bade  him  to 
read;  and  he  did  so. 


ECTOLOGY.  181 

QUESTIONS  t 

In  relation  to  the  matter  under  pp.  179,  180. 

1.  Why  is  who  repeated  so  often  ? 

2.  How  many  of  the  reladictions  has  who  ? 
8.  How  many  numerdictions  has  who  ? 

4.  Of  what  reladiction  is  thou  ? 

6.  Is  whoever  of  the  par-e-theme  reladiction  ? 

6.  Is  whoever  of  the  pros-o-theme  reladiction  ? 

7.  Is  whoever  of  the  panta-theme  reladiction  ? 

It  may  be  well  to  remark  here  that  there  are  bnt  nine,  or  ten 
words  in  the  language,  which  can  be  of  the  par-e-theme  reladiction, 
and  that  all  these  are  pronouns.  These  are  in  the  preceding 
scheme  which  is  designed  to  give  a  distinct  view  of  the  way  in 
which  pronouns  mark  the  different  relations  of  the  things,  men- 
tioned in  a  sentence  where  pronouns  are  used. 

1.  In  how  many  places  do  you  find  that,  which,  as,  one,  each, 
other,  and  it? 

2.  Is  that,  uni,  and  plus  ? 

3.  Is  that  of  the  par-e-theme,  pros-o-theme,  and  panta-theme  rela- 
diction ? 

4.  What  is  the  plus  of  he,  she,  and  it? 

5.  How  many  pronouns  are  both  cordictive,  and  uncordictive  ? 

6.  Have  you  examined  the  above  scheme  with  great  care  ? 


EXERCISES, 

In  which  the  pupil  should  be  drilled  in  the  reladiction,  and 
numerdiction  of  the  nouns  and  pronouns  which  are  in  italics. 

1.  [/am]  (the  man)  (who  commands  them.) 

2.  [it  is  not]  (/)  (who  command  the  men.) 

3.  [  Who*  are]  (they)  (that  opposed  the  motion)  (which 

James  made  ?) 

4.  [He  is]  (the  man)  (who  makes  long  speeches.) 

5.  [  We  are  not]  (they)  (     ,     whom)  (yon  take  us  to  be.) 

6.  [/spoke]  (to  thee;)  (but  thou  didst  not  hear  me.) 

7.  [/went]  (to  churcli)  (with  him,)  (and)  (them.) 

*  Who  is  made  Bynonymou*  with  persons  in  the  syllabane,  "  wh&t persons,"  by 
aj'jtlicativn.    This  eyllabane  would  hare  been  used  had  not  who  been  employed. 

1G 


182  ECTOLOGY. 

8.  [The  men  [whom  we  saw]  were  all  masked.] 

9.  [The  men  (whom  you  saw)  were  not  masked.] 

10.  [The  bird  (which  flew  the  highest)  is]  (an  eagle.) 

11.  [The  lions  (which  we  saw)  were  very  large.] 

12.  [Lions  are  (dangerous  animals)  when]  (they  are  angry.) 

13.  [Thou  (who  art  bad)  shouldst  be  good.] 

14.  [The  children  (that  we  taught)  have  become]  (men) 

(and)  (women?) 

15.  [They  (who  are  not  good)  cannot  appreciate  the  good- 
ness] (which  they  see)  (in  others.) 

16.  [Isaac     ,     ]  (and  Thomas  are)  (the  boys)  (whom  we 

saw)  (at  the  church)  (which  is)  (in  Arch  street.) 

17.  [Jacob  is]  (the  man)  (whom  we  have  selected.) 

18.  [They  are  not]  (in  the  business)  (which  they  like.) 

19.  [Those  trees  (which  grow)  (by  the  river)  are  very  tall;] 

(and  they  are  remarkably  straight.) 

20.  [Tne  old  men  (whom  we  saw)  are  wise.] 

21.  [Those  young  men  (whom  you  saw)  are  valiant.] 

22.  [The  boys  (that  they  saw)  are  intelligent.] 


LESSON  XVI. 

TRIFLECTION  OF  VERBS. 

The  triflection  of  a  verb  is  a  full  systematic  presentation 
of  the  three  kinds  of  verb  inflections. 

The  inflections  of  the  verb,  are  naturally  divided  into 

1.  Reladictive, 

2.  Tense,     and 

3.  Tenseless. 

1.  The  reladictive  inflections  are 

s,  es,  th,  t,  and  st, 

and  are  controlled,  and  produced  by  the  reladictions  of  the 
cordictive  nouns,  and  pronouns ;  as,  Thou  writes*. 

2.  The  tense  inflections  are  the  primitive,  and  derivative 


ECTOLOdY. 


183 


forms  of  verbs,  which  indicate  the  exertion  of  time-expressing 
power;  as,  d}  ed,  a,  &c. 

3.  The  ten&eless  inflections  are  the  derivative  forms  of  the 
verb,  which  indicate  the  non-exertion  of  all  time-expressing 
power ;  as,  en,  u,  ing,  &c. 


TRIFLECTION  OF  he. 

DEMIMONO. 


Present  Tense. 
To  be. 


Prior-past  Tense. 
To  futve  been. 


NE-DEMIMONO* 

Imperative  Cordiction. 
Present — Be  thou,  be  you,  or  be  ye. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 

Uni. 

Plus. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction.         I             am 

We 

are 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction.       Thou      art 

You 

are 

Panta-theme  Reladiction.        He          is 

They 

are 

RE-PRESENT    TENSE. 


Uni. 

Plus. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction. 

I              have  been 

We 

hive  been 

Pros-o-theme  Relinlirtion. 

Thou        ha.rt  been 

Ye 

have  been 

Panta-theme  Reladiction. 

He            has  been 

They 

have  been 

PASSED    TENSE. 

Uni. 

Plus. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction. 

I             was 

We 

were 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction. 

Thou      wast 

You 

were 

Panta-theme  Reladiction. 

He          was 

They 

were 

*  Whde 

mono.    Ne-demi,  not  half. 

184  ECTOLOGY. 


PRIOR-PASSED   TENSE. 


Uni. 

Jftw. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction. 

I 

had  been 

We 

had  been 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction. 

Thou 

hadst  been 

You 

had  been 

Panta-theme  Reladiction. 

She 

had  been 

They 

had  been 

FUTURE 

TENSE. 

Uni. 

Plus. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction. 

I 

will  be 

We 

will  be 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction. 

Thou 

wilt  be 

Ye 

wrc'W  be 

Panta-theme  Reladiction. 

He 

Uni. 

will  be 

They 
Plus. 

will  be 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction. 

I 

shall  be 

We 

aAaZZ  be 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction. 

Thou 

shalt  be 

Ye 

shall  be 

Panta-theme  Reladiction. 

She 

shall  be 

They 

sAaZZ  be 

PRIOR-FUTURE   TENSE. 

Uni.  Plus. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction.     I      shall  have  been  We    shall  have  been 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction.   Thou  wrcft  /iaue  been  You   shall  have  been 

Panta-theme  Reladiction.    She   w7Z  Aave  been  They  shall  have  been 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

Subfirmative  Cordiction. 

Uni.  Phis. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction.     If      I        am  If      we     are 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction.   If      thou  art  If      ye      are 

Panta-theme  Reladiction.    If      he     is  If      they  are 

How  is  it  known  that  the  time  is  present  ?  Answer — By  the  form 
of  the  verb.     If  it  was  future,  it  would  be,  be  ;  as,  if  I  be. 

That  is,  If  I  should  be. 

But,  because  it  is  am,  art,  is,  and  are,  no  inceptive  verb,  denoting 
futurity,  can  be  employed. 

Passed  tense  of  Be,  changed  to  the  present  by  supposition,  con- 
cession, &c. 

Negative  Affirmative  Cordiction. 

Par-e-theme  Reladiction.    Was  I  well,  we  would  attend. 
Pros-o-theme  Reladiction.  Wast  thou  a  good  writer,  I  would  em- 
ploy thee. 
Panta-theme  Reladiction.  I  wish  he  was  here.    [He.] 


Plus. 

be 

whether  we 

,     be 

be 

unless    ye 

,     be 

be 

lest         they 

,     be 

EOTOLOOY.  185 

I'ni.  Pins. 

Par-e-theme  Reindict  ion.  If  I  was  now  there  If  we  were  now,  &c. 
Pres-o-theme  Reladiction.  If  thou  wast  now,  &c.  If  ye  were  now,  &c. 
Panta-theme  Reladiction.  If  she   was  now,  &c.  If  they  w ere  now,  &C. 


IMPLENARY   MONO,    FUTURE   TENSE. 

Subfirmative  Cordiction. 

When  there  are  doubt,  and  futurity,  shall,  or  should  may  be  omit- 
ted ;  yet  it  is  better,  in  all  such  cases,  to  express  the  inceptive 
verb. 

UhL 

Par-e-iheme  Reladiction.  If  I 

Pros-o-theme  Reladiction.  If  thou 

Panta-theme  Reladiction.  If  he 

This  implenary  state  of  the  mono,  however,  produces  no  beauty, 
nor  any  other  good ;  it  is,  therefore,  better  to  give  the  plenary 
expression ;  as,  If  thou  shouldst  be  at  my  house  next  week,  thou 
wilt  find  me  at  home. 

1.  Tenseless  Be  form — being. 

2.  Tenseless  Have  form — been. 


REMARKS. 

What  in  this  system  is  denominated  Triflection,  is  styled  in  the 
old  theory,  Conjugation.  But,  as  the  word,  conjugation,  is  a  mis- 
nomer, I  cannot  consent  to  use  it. 

It  may  be  gratifying  to  the  curious  to  see  the  definition  which 
the  old  school  Grammarians  give  of  Conjugation.     Murray  says  : — ■ 

"  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combination, 
and  arrangement  of  its  several  numbers,  persons,  moods,  and 
tenses." 

Goold  Brown  says : — 

"  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrangement  of 
its  moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and  participles/' 

As  the  word,  conjugation,  conveys  no  allusion  whatever  to  the 
idea  of  a  regular  arrangement,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  employed  by 
the  old  school  Grammarians,  with  a  very  ill  grace.  If  the  word, 
Conjugation,  means  any  thing,  it  signifies  the  act  of  conjoining  one 
thing  to  another.  He  that  ties  two  spoons  together,  conjugates 
tbem .' 

1G* 


186  ,  ECTOLOOY. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrangement  of  its 
moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and  participles. — Goold 
Brown. 

That  is,  the  conjugation  of  an  apple  tree  is  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  the  apples  which  it  yields.  Now,  as  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  the  apples,  would  be  a  conjugation,  not  of  the  tree,  but  of 
the  apples,  so  a  regular  arrangement  of  the  moods,  tenses,  persons, 
numbers,  and  participles  of  a  verb,  must  be  the  conjugation,  not  of  the 
verb  itself,  but  of  the  moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and  parti- 
ciples. 

Murray  says  :- 

"  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combination  of 
its  several  moods,"  &c. 

That  is,  the  indicative  mood,  the  potential  mood,  the  subjunctive 
mood,  the  imperative  mood,  and  the  infinitive  mood  are  to  be  com- 
bined, bound  together  !  What  a  formidable  coalition  is  the  conjugation 
of  a  verb  !  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combination  of 
its  several  moods,  &c. 

In  the  Appeal,  it  is  demonstrated  that  no  verb  has  mood,  that 
no  verb  has  number,  that  no  verb  has  person,  and  that  no  verb  has 
a  participle.  Hence,  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combi- 
nation of  these  four  nonentities!  The  conjugation  of  a  tree  is  the 
regular  combination  of  the  apples  which  the  tree  never  possesses ! 


IMPORTANT   PRINCIPLES. 
1st  Principle. 

In  the  formation  of  the  verb  series,  no  verb  can  stand  with  it- 
self— or, 

In  the  formation  of  the  verb  series,  no  two  forms  of  the  same  verb 
can  stand  together.  For  instance,  Writing  written,  Written  writing, 
Write  wrote,  Wrote  write,  Is  being,  Was  being,  Art  been,  Be  was,  are 
illegitimate  combinations. 

The  house  is  being  built,  is  shamefully  bad.  Is  and  being  are  not 
two  distinct  verbs,  but  two  forms  of  be.  Hence  is  being  is  as  bad  as 
is  been.  Is  and  been  cannot  stand  in  juxtaposition,  for  both  forms 
are  the  same  verb. 

2d  Principle. 

In  the  formation  of  the  verb  series,  no  two  mono  verbs  can  stand 
together;  as  Joel  Howe  stands  convicted  of  a  larceny;  1  stand  cor- 
rected; Nathaniel  sat  eating  his  dinner ;  They  lag  musing  on  what 
had  passed  ;  They  stood  thinking  en  their  crimes. 

1.   [Stands  convicted,  should  be  is  convicted.] 


ECTOLOGY.  187 

2.  [Stand  corrected,  should  be  am  corrected ;  or,  have  been  cor- 
rected.] 

8.  [Sat  eating,  is  good ;  it  is  elliptical — sat  at  the  table,  and  was 
in  the  act  of  eating  his  dinner.] 

4.  [They  stood  thinking,  is  good ;  it,  too,  is  implenary — they 
stood,  and  were  in  the  act  of  thinking.] 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  triflection? 

2.  What  is  the  meaning  of  tri  ?  [Tris,  three.] 

3.  How  are  the  verb  inflections  divided  ? 

4.  What  are  the  reladictive  inflections  ? 

5.  Why  are  these  inflections  styled  reladictive  ? 

6.  Will  you  give  all  the  tense  inflections  ? 

7.  What  are  the  tenseless  forms  of  verbs  ? 

8.  What  are  the  reladictive  forms  of  verbs  ? 

9.  Are  the  tenseless  forms  the  primitive,  or  the  derivative  state  of 
the  verb  ? 

10.  What  is  the  Tenseless  Be  form  of  walk  ? 

11.  What  is  the  Tenseless  Be  and  Have  form  of  walk? 
[  Walk  has  no  Tenseless  Be  and  Have  form.] 

12.  Is  it  proper,  then,  to  use  Be  and  Have  before  walk? 

[Yes. — Where  a  final  verb  has  no  Be  and  Have  form,  these 
inceptive  verbs  may  be  used  with  the  final  verb  in  its 
primitive  state,  or  in  its  passed  tense  form  ;  as,  We  have 
put  up  the  book  ;  They  have  walked  a  mile ;  The  horse 
must  have  been  walked  over  that  bridge.] 

13.  What  is  the  first  principle  under  the  head  of  important  prin- 
ciples? 

14.  What  is  the  second  principle  under  this  head? 

15.  Is  was  being  correct? 

16.  Why  is  not  was  being  proper?  > 

17.  Is  he  stands  corrected  proper? 

18.  Why  is  it  not  proper? 

19.  Is  the  expression,  Thehouse  is  being  built,  proper? 

20.  Why  is  not  is  being  right  ?  l 

21.  Is  the  expression,  The  house  is  building,  proper?    [Yes.] 
[The  objection  which  Mr.  Chandler  urges  against  this  form  of 

expression,  is  not  valid.  He  says  that  the  impropriety  of  this  con- 
struction springs  from  its  capacity  to  misrepresent.  He  denies 
that  the  house  is  building;  but  aifirnis  that  the  men  are  building 
it.  This  same  Mr.  Chandler,  however,  admits  that  the  following 
is  correct  English  . — The  kettle  boils,  The  kettle  is  boiling. 

But  does  the  kettle  itself  boil  ?  No,  verily — the  liquid,  the  water, 
which  this  vessel  contains,  boils.  Because  the  house  does  not 
build  itself,  Mr.  Chandler  says  the  expression,  The  house  is  build- 
ing, is  improper. 

How  does  Mr.  Chandler  rectify  this  gross  error?  Why,  by 
placing  two  forms  of  be  together  !     "  The  house  is  being  built." 


188 


ECTOLOOY. 


LESSON  XXII. 

I.  The  Plurors  of  Nouns,  and  Pronouns. 

The  plurors  of  nouns,  and  pronouns,  are  the  different 
means  which  render  nouns,  and  pronouns  plural;  as,  book, 
books  (s),  man,  men,  (e). 


S 

Es 

Ves 

Ies 

E 

En 

Ee 

Ne-o 


The  Plurors. 

Ic,  Ice 

Im 


Plurors. 


M 

I 

A 

Nepos 
Sense 
Imputation 


Plurors. 


remarks. 

S  is  a  pluror  where  it  adds  merely  its  own  sound  to  that  of  the 
syllable  to  which  it  is  affixed;  as,  attorney  attorneys,  chimney, 
chimney*. 

But  where  s  not  only  adds  its  own  sound  to  that  of  the  syllable 
to  which  it  is  affixed,  but  actually  changes  the  syllable  into  one  of 
an  entirely  different  sound,  and  import,  *  is  not  the  pluror  of  the 
noun ;   as,  wo,  la-dy,  directory. 

As  an  affix  to  nouns,  s  is  numeral  in  its  import,  and  denotes 
plurality.  S  has  this  numeral  import  in  all  instances  where  it 
holds  in  the  frame-work  of  the  word,  a  mere  affix  relation  ;  as, 
book,  book-s,  pen,  pen-s.  In  the  same  way  in  which  semi,  and 
demi  are  prefixed  to  nouns  to  denote  half;  as,  semi- vowel,  demi- 
tone  ;  s  is  affixed  to  nouns  to  denote  plurality ;  as,  book,  book-.?. 

But  as  demi,  and  semi  are  not  prefixes  in  all  instances,  as  in 
swnnary,  demist;  so  s  is  not  always  a  pluror,  as  in  atlas,  John 
Maas. 

1.  Semi-vovrel, — Seminary. 

2.  Book-*, — At-las. 

Here,  as  seme  modifies  the  word,  vowel,  so  does  s  modify  the  word, 
book.     While  semi  makes  the  word,  vowel,  mean  a  half  votfel,  s 


ECTOLOdY.  189 

makes  the  word,  boolc,  mean  many  books.  And,  while  semi  loses 
its  prefix  character  in  seminary,  by  becoming  an  essential  part  of 
the  w*d,  8  loses  its  affix  character  in  atlas,  by  becoming  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  syllable  to  which  it  belongs — las. 

Hence  where  it  is  possible  for  s  to  convert  the  syllable  into  one 
different  from  that  intended,  by  appearing  to  be  an  essential  part 
of  it,  s  should  not  be  used  as  a  pluror ;  as,  lady,  l&-dys}  wo,  wos, 
potato,  po-ta-fo*, 

Here  *  is  liable  to  be  taken,  not  as  a  mere  pluralizing  affix  to  the 
word,  lady,  but  as  an  essential  part  of  the  last  syllable — and  as 
such  s  converts  dy  into  dys,  dis.  Hence  the  word  would  become 
la-dys,  or  la-dis,  instead  of  ladies.  And,  if  we  give  *  its  sharp 
hissing  sound,  it  converts  wo  into  woss.  Hence  instead  of  having 
woe*,  we  have  woss.  And,  if  we  give  a  its  short  broad  sound,  and 
s  its  sharp  hissing  sound,  we  have  po-ta-fcws,  instead  of  potatoes. 

In  instances,  however,  where  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  s  retains 
its  pluror  character ;  as,  attor-ney,  attor-neys.  Neys,  as  a  mere 
syllable,  is  nearly  equal  to  nies. 

S  retains  its  pluror  character  where  it  merely  adds  its  own  sound 
to  that  of  the  syllable  to  which  it  is  affixed ;  as,  money,  moneys^ 
chimney,  chimneys. 

But  where  *  not  only  adds  its  own  sound  to  that*  of  the  syllable 
to  which  it  is  affixed,  but  actually  changes  the  syllable  into  one 
entirely  different  in  sound,  and  import,  *  loses  its  numeral,  its 
affix  character ;  as,  wo,  wos,  lady,  la-dys,  directory,  directo-rys. 


RULES. 

Rule  I.  Nouns  which  end  with  a,  e,  y,  or  w,  are  plused 
by  s;  as,  era,  eras,  pie,  pies,  landau,  landaus,  how,  bows. 

Rule  II.  When  a  final  o  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  noun 
is  plused  by  s;  as  Scipio,  Scipios. 

Rule  III.  When  the  final  oo  is  pronounced  like  oo  in  too, 
the  noun  is  plused  by  s ;  as,  bamboo,  bamboos. 

Rule  IV.  Nouns,  in  general,  which  end  in  any  conso- 
nant but  ch  soft,  x,  8,  s8,  or  sh,  are  plused  by  s ;  as,  scrap, 
scraps,  chi?z,  chins,  mussulmaw,  mussulmans. 

Rule  V.  When  the  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the 
noun  is  plused  by  s  ;  as,  key,  keys,  attorney,  attorneys. 

Rule  VI.  When  the  noun  which  terminates  in  f,  or 
fe,  or  ff,  does  not  retain  much  of  the  /  sound  in  the  plu- 


190 


ECTOLOGY. 


ral,  it  is  plused  by  s;  as,  fife,  fifes,  grief,  griefs,  surf,  surfs-. 
(Not  fives,  grieves,  surges.) 

Rule  VII.  When  the  noun  is  followed  by  the  adjective 
in  a  construction  which  might  be  made  a  compound  word, 
the  noun  is  plused  by  placing  s  immediately  after  it;  as,  court 


martial,  courts  martial. 


NOUNS   WHICH   ARE   PLUSED   BY   THE   S   PLUROR. 


1. 

2. 

3.                        4. 

Automaton 

Affray 

Brief                 Graff 

Beau 

Allay 

Dwarf               Mischief 

Cherub 

Attorney 

Fife                   Proof 

Encomium 

Chimney 

Grief                Reproof 

Medium 

Delay 

Gulph              Roof 

Memorandum 

Money 

Handkerchief  Scarf 

Seraph 

Sunday 

Hoof                Strife 

Mono 

Mussulman 

Flag-staff          Surf 

Turkoman 

Talisman 

Staff*               Turf,  Wharf. 

Note  1. — The  word,  beau,  is  French,  and  is  generally  plused  by 
x;  as,  beau*. 

The  word  is  so  well  known,  however,  in  the  English  language 
that  it  may  be  plused  by  s  without  any  danger  of  turning  it  into 
another  word — indeed  I  do  not  see  that  s  is  liable  to  lose  its  plu- 
ror  character  in  this  place  any  more  than  in  attorneys. 

The  other  nouns  in  the  first  column,  are  made  from  foreign 
languages  ;  and  they  may  be  plused  by  s,  and  also  by  the  plurors 
peculiar  to  their  respective  sources. 

Each  of  these  is  denominated  a  duplus. 

A  Duplus  is  a  word  which  has  two  plurors ;  as,  mediums,  media. 
(*,  a.) 

A  Uniplus  is  a  word  which  has  but  one  pluror ;  as,  pen,  pens. 

N6te  2. — The  words  in  the  third  column,  as  well  as  those  in  the 
fourth,  are  exceptions  to  other  classes. 


THE   ES   PLUROR. 

The  es  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  those  nouns  which 
are  plused  by  es;  as,  box,  boxes,  gas,  gases. 


*  Staff,  as  a  military  term,  is  plused  by  s.     But  when  the  noun 
denotes  a  walking-stick,  it  is  plused  by  ves. 


ECTOLOGY. 


191 


RULES. 

Rule  I.  Where  a  noun  ends  with  soft  ch,  xy  sh,  *,  or  ss, 
it  is  plused  by  es;  as,  church,  churches,  box,  boxes,  gas, 
gases,  calash,  calashes,  hiss,  hisses. 

Rule  II.  When  the  final  o  is  preceded  by  a  consonanty 
the  noun  is  plused  by  es;  as,  negro,  negroes,  motto,  mottoes, 
echo,  echoes. 

NOUNS  WHICH  ARE  PLUSED  BY  THE  ES  PLUROR. 

Apollo  Axis  Musketo  Negro 

Box  Diaeresis  Ellipsis  Rebus 

Church  Hypothesis  Basis  Volcano 

Echo  Grass  Branch  Miss 

Calash  Lass  Antithesis  Crisis 

Index  Lash  Memento  Oniphasis 

Manifesto  Mess  Metamorphosis 

Note. — Index  may  be  considered  a  dupius — it  has  two  plurors, 
though  not  without  regard  to  the  sense.  When  the  word  signifies 
pointers,  or  tables  of  contents,  it  is  plused  by  es. 

But  when  it  signifies  algebraic  quantities,  it  is  plused  by  ices — 
indict. 


The  foUvwing  nouns  have  no  uni  numer diction. 


Annals 

Archives 

Ashes 

Assets 

Betters 

Bitters 

Bowels 

Breeches 


Clothes 

Customs 

Calends 


Drawers 

Matins 

Downs 

Mallows 

Dregs 

Orgies 

Embers 

Nippers 

Entrails 

Pincers 

Fetters 

Pinchers 

Filings 

Pleiades 

Goods 

Riches 

Hatches 

Snuffers 

Ides 

Shears 

Lees 

Scissors 

Lungs 

Shambles. 

Tidings 

Tongs 

Thanks 

Tweezers 

Vespers 

Vitals 

Victuals 

Letters* 

Mannersf 


*  Letters  in  the  sense  of  literature, 
f  Manners  in  the  sense  of  behaviour. 


192  ECTOLOGY. 


THE   VES  PLUROR. 

The  ves  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  those  nouns  that 
are  plused  by  ves;  as,  elf,  elves,  life,  lives. 

RULES. 

Rule  I.     Where  the  plus  retains  almost  all  the  /  sound, 
the  noun  is  plused  by  ves;  as,  beef,  beeves,  leaf,  leaves. 
Very  little  of  the  /  sound  is  retained  in  the  plus  of  fife— fifes. 

NOUNS  WHICH  ARE  PLUSED  BY  THE  VES  PLUROR. 


Beef 

Knife 

Self 

Thief 

Calf 

Leaf 

Sheaf 

Wharf 

Elf 

Life 

Shelf 

Wife 

Half 

Loaf 

Staff* 

Wolf 

THE  IES  PLUROR. 

The  ies  pluror  is  the  jplusmg  means  of  those  nouns  which 
are  plused  by  ies;  as,  proxy,  proxies. 

RULES. 

I.  When  the  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  the 
noun  is  plused  by  substituting  ies  for  y  ;  as,  lacfy,  ladies, 
duty,  duties. 


If  s  alone,  is  affixed,  lady  becomes  l&dys;  and  duty  becomes  dii- 
tys.  And  if  es  should  be  affixed,  lady  would  become  la-dy-es.  And, 
if  the  word  should  be  considered  a  dissyllable, — thus,  ladyes,  du~ 
tyes,  the  word,  yes,  would  become  a  mere  affix  to  other  words. 

In  this  way  we  should  have  two  derivative  affixes  importing  pre- 
cisely the  same  thing — yes,  and  ies. 

Besides,  yes  is  not  synonymous  with  ies  in  sound.  Yes  is  yis, 
and  ies  is  sometimes  short  ie  with  s ;  as,  ies,  ees.     La-dees,  dutees. 


*  When  staff  means  a  walking-stick,  it  is  plused  by  ves.     But  as 
a  term  in  military  affairs,  staff  is  plused  by  s. 


ECTOLOQY.  193 

Nor  is  it  in  the  power  of  any  letter  to  make  yes,  ies.  Hence, 
dyes  is  not  equal  to  dies — nor  is  tyes  synonymous  with  ties.  Dies  is 
dees ;  and  ties  is  tees.     But  dyes  is  dy-es  ;  and  tyes  is  ty-es. 

Nor  is  it  in  the  power  of  any  letter  except  a  vowel,  to  make  ys 
equal  to  es,  for  es,  as  an  affix  pluror,  is  short  ee  with  s  ;  as,  ys,  ees. 
Now  eys,  as  an  affix,  is  nearly,  or  quite  ees — for  the  y  is  short, 
which  gives  it  the  sound  of  short  e — hence  eys  is  nearly,  or  quite 
ees.  Therefore,  all  nouns  terminating  a  singular  with  a  y  which 
is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  have  the  *  pluror ;  as,  day,  days.  But 
unless  the  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  noun  is  plused  by  ies  ;  as, 
fly,  toes. 

Beauty,  Fly,        i,  es. 

Duty,  Penny,   i,  es. 

Penny  is  a  duplus — it  may  be  plused  in  two  ways — pen- 
nies, or  pence. 


NOUNS   WHICH  ARE   PLUSED   BY  THE   IES  PLUROR. 

Proxy  Cry  Piracy 

City  Berry  Prodigy 

Fly  Liberty  Lady 

Ditty  Destiny  Beauty 


THE   E  PLUROR. 


The  c  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  the  nouns  that  are 
plused  by  c  ;  as,  man,  men,  woman,  women. 


THE  EN,    OR   REN   PLUROR. 

The  en,  or  ren  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  the  nouns 
which  are  plused  by  eny  or  ren;  as,  brother,  brethren,  child, 
children,  ox,  oxen. 

BrotJier  is  a  duplus — it  has  two  plurors,  s,  and  ren.  When 
the  noun  is  applied  to  a  person  who  is  a  brother  by  blood,  it 
is  generally  plused  by  s. 

But,  when  it  is  applied  to  a  member  of  the  same  society, 
it  is  generally  plused  by  ren. 

17 


194  ECTOLOGY. 

THE  EE  PLUROR. 

The  ee  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  the  nouns  which 
are  plused  by  ee;  as,  foot,  feet,  tooth,  teeth,  goose,  geese. 

THE  ICE  PLUROR. 

The  ice  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  the  nouns  which 
are  plused  by  ice;  as,  mouse,  mice,  louse,  lice. 

THE  IM  PLUROR. 

The  im  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  the  nouns  derived 
from  the  Hebrew,  and  plused  by  im  ;  as,  cherub,  cherubim, 
seraph,  seraphim. 

Cherub,  as  well  as  seraph,  is  a  duplus.  Both  are  plused 
by  im,  and  s. 

THE  M  PLUROR. 

The  se  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  nouns  derived  from 
the  Latin,  and  plused  by  as;  as,  lamina,  lamina?. 


THE  I  PLUROR. 

The  i  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  nouns  derived  from 
the  Latin,  and  Greek,  which  are  plused  by  i;  as,  magus, 
magi,  radius,  radii,  genius,  genii. 

When  men  of  genius  are  meant,  genius  has  the  es  pluror; 
as,  The  Smiths  are  all  geniuses. 

But  when  aerial  spirits  are  meant,  genius  has  the  i  pluror; 
as,  These  are  some  good  genu  sent  to  protect  us. 

Indeed,  genius  may  be  considered  a  duplus. 

THE  A  PLUROR. 

The  a  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  nouns  of  foreign  ex- 
traction, which  are  plused  by  a ;  as,  criterion,  criteria,  arca- 
num, arcana. 


ECTOLOOY. 


195 


NOUNS   WHICH   ARE   PLUSED   BY  THE  A  PLUROR. 


Arcanum 

Criterion 

Datum 

Arcanum 

Criterion 


Datum 

Erratum 

Stratum 

Effluvium 

Automaton 


Effluvium. 

Genus 

Erratum 

Desideratum 

Phenomenon 


Those  in  italics  are  dupluses — they  are  plused  by  a, 
and  s. 

Note. — Criterion,  genus,  medium,  stratum,  and  stamen,  are  dupluses. 
Genus  is  plused  by  es ;  the  others,  by  *.  (See  Note  under  the  i 
pluror.) 

THE  NEPOS  PLUROR. 

The  nepos  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  those  pro- 
nouns which  are  plused  by  new  words;  as,  I,  we, — Tie,  (key, 
— it,  they, — thou,  you,  Or  ye. 

PRONOUNS  WHICH   HAVE  THE  NEPOS  PLUROR. 

I  Thee  She 

Me  He  Her 

Thou  Him  It 

(The  word,  nepos,  is  made  from  neos,  new,  and  epos,  a  word,  and 

means  new  word.     The  nepos   pluror,    then,    is  the   new   word 

pluror.) 

THE   SENSE   PLUROR. 

The  sense  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  the  nouns  which 
are  plused  entirely  by  the  sense;  as,  sheep,  deer. 


NOUNS  WHICH  ARE  PLUSED  BY  TnE  SENSE  PLUROR. 


Deer 

Swine 

Fish 

Shad 

Means 

Kine 

Trout 

Herring 

Sheep 

Hose 

Cattle 

Haddock 

Salmon 

Cannon 

Hiatus 

Apparatus 

Series 

Odds 

Means 

Alms 

Amends 

Wages 

Species 

Gallows 

196 


ECTOLOGY. 


THE   IMPUTATION   PLUROR. 


The  imputation  pluror  is  the  plusing  means  of  the  pro- 
nouns  which  have  no  plural  in  themselves,  or  of  their  own, 
and  which  are  plused  by  imputing  to  them  the  plus  numer- 
diction  of  the  nouns  with  which  they  are  made  synonymous 
by  application  j  as,  Henry  who  wishes  to  see  you,  is  here ; 
The  Henries  who  wish  to  see  you,  are  here. 


PRONOUNS  WHICH  ARE  PLUSED  BY  THE  IMPUTATION 
PLUROR. 

As  That  Which  Who 

Whom  Whoever         Whomsoever     Whosoever 


THE   NE-0  PLUROR. 

The  ne-o  pluror  is  the  entire  want,  or  destitution  of  all 
plusing  means ;  as,  disdain,  humility. 

NOUNS   WHICH   ARE  PLUSED  BY   THE   NE-0   PLUROR. 


Sugar 

Gold^ 

Hatred 

Honesty 

Pride 

Disdain 

Violence 

Integrity 

Wheat 

Cotton 

Affluence 

Strength 

Sloth 

Flax 

Business 

Redness 

Pitch 

Wool 

Goodness 

Blackness 

Love 

Pity  ;  < 

Accuracy 

Despair 

Silver 

Humility 

Innocence 

Temperance 

Confinement 

Hopelessness  Eucharist 

Canvas 

Heroism 

Laziness 

Wealth 

Tightness 

Firmness 

Odium 

Tidings 

Snugness 

Closeness 

Neatness 

Feebleness 

Sourness 

Souse 

Weakness 

Lard 

Property 

Spaciousness 

Contempt 

Money 

&c,  &c,  &c. 

Note. — Wlieat,  tea,  sugar,  coffeey  money,  property,  (as  wealth,)  &c, 
should  not  be  plused.  The  different  wheats  is  not  good.  It  should 
be  the  different  kinds  of  wheat. 

The  following  nouns  should  have  the  ne-o  pluror ; — yet 


ECTOLOGY. 


197 


writers  use  them  as  uni,   or  plus,  as   their  whims  lead 
thorn. 


Amends 

Alms 

I>ellows 

Gallows 

Odds 

Means 

Pains 

News 

Kiches 


Wages 

Billiards 

Fives 

Sessions 

Measles 

Hysterics 

Physics 

Ethics 

Optics 


Conies 

Catoptrics 

Dioptrics 

Acoustics 

Pneumatics 

Statics 

Statistics 

Spherics 

Tactics 


Economics 

Mathematics 

Mechanics 

Hydraulics 

Hydrostatics 

Analytics 

Politics 


QUESTIONS. 

1 .  What  are  the  grammatical  properties  of  nouns,  and  pronouns  f 

2.  What  is  application  f 

3.  What  are  the  plurors  of  nouns,  and  pronouns? 

4.  What  is  numer diction  f 

5.  What  is  genediction  9 
G.  What  is  reladiction  ? 

7.  What  is  the  pluror  of  book?     (s.) 

8.  What  is  the  pluror  of  me ?     (us.) 

0.  What  is  the  pluror  of  mouse?     (ice.) 

10.  What  is  the  pluror  of  wo?     (es.) 

11.  What  is*the  pluror  of  thou?     (ye.) 

12.  What  is  the  pluror  of  man?     \e.) 
18.  What  is  the  pluror  of  lady?     \ies.) 

14.  What  is  the  pluror  of  landau?     (».) 

15.  What  is  the  pluror  of  beau?     (»,  or  x.) 

16.  What  is  the  pluror  of  mussulman?     («.) 

17.  What  is  Ectoloqy? 

18.  From  what  is  ectology  made?     [page  129.] 

19.  What  is  a  pluror? 

20.  What  is  the  pluror  of  attorney  general?    (s.) 


17* 


198  ECTOLOGY. 

LESSON  XVII. 
SUBDIVISION   OP   ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  are  subdivided  upon  the  basis  of  the  means 
by  which  the  words  are  rendered  adjectives,  into 

1.  Suffix  adjectives, 

2.  Abjix  adjectives, 

3.  Application  adjectives,  and 

4.  Absolute  adjectives. 

1.  SUFFIX  ADJECTIVES. 

A  suffix  adjective  is  a  word  which  is  made  an  adjective 
by  a  suffix  ;  as,  Metal  metallic,  Music  musica?,  John  John's, 
Eagles  eagles',  Me  my,  He  his,  Me  mine,  Abbey  abbatica?, 
Parent  parenta?,  Tutor  tutorial. 

2.  ABFIX   ADJECTIVES.* 

An  abjix  adjective  is  a  word  which  is  made  an  adjective 
by  cutting  off  a  suffix;  as,  Goodness  good,  Redness  red, 
Strength  strong,  Eagerness  eager,  SlowZy  slow,  Rapidly 
rapid,  Accuracy  accurate,  Correct^  correct,  Positiveraess 
positive. 

3.    APPLICATION   ADJECTIVES. 

An  application  adjective  is  a  word  which  is  made  an 
adjective  by  its  application  alone;  as,  Stove  pipe,  Leather 
shoe,  Indignation  meeting,  Application  adjectives,  Gold 
ring,  Man  servant,  John  Adams. 

4.    ABSOLUTE   ADJECTIVES.f 

An  absolute  adjective  is  a  word  whose  adjective  character 

*  Ab,  taking  from. 

f  Absolute  means  absolved,  or  set  free  from.  Hence,  where  the  cufjective  charac- 
ter of  a  word  is  absolved,  set  free  from,  all  changes  which  are  often  made  in  worda 


ECTOLOGY. 


199 


is  independent  of  any  change  in,  or  application  of,  the 
word;  as,  A  man,  The  fcook,  Any  pen,  Some  knife,  All 
children,  These  apples,  Tlwse  shoes. 


Suffixes  which  render  words  Adjectives. 

iar,  ry,  ic,  al,  an,  ish,  ful,  ly,  ing,  id,  ous,  ed,  y,  ty,  ine,  ive,  some,  ese, 
less,  er,  irs,  is,  s\ 

Note. — Nouns  may  have  some  of  these  adjective  terminations  ; 
as,  The  Republic  of  America. 

But  the  pupil  will  not  be  confused  from  this  fact  if  he  gives 
close  attention  to  the  following  tests  : 

1.  When  trunk  words  have  any  of  the  adjective  terminations, 
they  are  nouns ;  as,  Party,  The  writing  is  good. 

2.  When  branch  words  have  adjective  terminations,  they  are 
generally  adjectives ;  as,  Party  feelings,  Writing  table. 

Some  verbs  end  with  ed,  en,  ing,  and  ly  ;  as,  He  walked  Henry 
has  written,  I  am  writing,  Birds  fly. 

Adverbs,  too,  may  end  in  ly ;  as,  Thirdly,  CorrectZy. 


Adjectives  made  from  Pronouns. 


Pronouns. 

Suffix  Adjectives. 

I 

My,  mine. 

We 

Our,  ours. 

Thou 

Thy,  thine. 

Ye  or  you 

Your,  yours. 

He 

His. 

She 

Her,  hers. 

It 

Its. 

They 

Their,  theirs. 

Who 

Whose,  whosoever. 

One 

One's,  ones'. 

Each  other 

Other's,  others' 

One  another 

Another's. 

Which 

What 

As 

Thnt 

Those.     [o»e.] 
These,     [ese.'] 

This 

to  render  them  atJj-ctivex,  and  also  set  free  from  all  appticaiiont  from  which  somo 
Wokdl  derive  their  atljrctiiv  character,  the  adjective  itself  becomes  absolute.  Au 
ab.olut*:  adjective  is  a  wonl  which,  if  we  may  so  speak,  is  burn  an  adjective. 


200  ECTOLOOY. 


QUESTIONS. 


1.  Upon  what  basis  are  adjectives  sub-divided? 

2.  What  is  an  absolute  adjective? 

3.  What  is  the  meaning  of  absolute  ? 

4.  What  is  James,  in  Nancy  James  ? 

5.  What  is  Nancy,  in  Nancy  James  ? 

6.  What  is  a  suffix  adjective  ? 

7.  What  is  John's,  in  John's  pen  ? 
i       8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  suffix  ? 

1       9.  What  is  affixed  to  John,  to  render  it  an  adjective  ? 

10.  What  kind  of  an  adjective  is  John,  in  John  Burton?  [An  ap- 
plication.] 

11.  What  is  an  abfix  adjective? 

12.  What  does  ab  mean  ? 

13.  What  is  good,  in  Good  fruit? 

14.  What  is  fruit,  in  Fruit  basket? 

15.  What  is  famed,  in  the  following  sentence? — 

Cicero  was  famed  for  eloquence. 

1 6.  What  is  famous  ? 

17.  What  is  fameless  ? 

18.  What  is  famed,  in  These  highly  famed  men  ? 

19.  What  is  fame-giving,  in  Fame-giving  tongues  ? 

20.  What  is  fame,  in  Great  fame? 

21.  What  is  family,  in  Family  circle? 

22.  What  kind  of  an  adjective  is  familiar? 

[This  word  is  rendered  an  adjective  by  the  amputation  of 
ity.-] 


SPECIMEN. 

Salt  water  contains  salt. 
Salt         is  an  application  adjective. 
water       is  a  noun 
contains  is  a  verb. 
salt  is  a  noun. 


EXERCISES. 


1.  Apples  are  plentiful.     [Not,  plenty.  ] 

2.  Crooked  sticks  are  not  straight. 

3.  Brick  houses  contain  many  bricks. 

4.  John  Boston  has  a  large  Franklin  stove. 

[More  Exercises,  page  IOC] 


ECTOLOQY.  201 

QUESTIONS, 

On  the  matter  which  commences  under  page  188. 

1.  What  is  *,  where  it  adds  merely  its  own  sound  to  that  of  the 
syllable  to  which  it  is  affixed  ? 

2.  What  is  not  s,  where  it  changes  the  syllable  to  which  it  is 
affixed,  into  one  of  an  entirely  different  sound,  and  import  ? 

3.  What  is  s,  as  an  affix  to  a  noun  ? 

4.  Does  *  denote  unity,  or  plurality  ? 

6.  In  what  cases  has  *  this  numeral  import  ? 

Do  you  understand  the  illustration  which  the  author  attempts 
to  give  of  s  by  the  means  of  semi,  and  demi  ? 

6.  What  is  the  first  Rule  under  page  189  ? 

7.  What  is  the  second  Rule  under  this  page  ? 

8.  What  is  the  plumedium  of  the  nouns  which  end  with  a,  e,  «, 
or  w? 

9.  When  a  final  o  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  by  what  means  is  the 
noun  plused? 

10.  By  what  plumedium  is  the  noun  plused  when  the  final  oo  is 
pronounced  like  oo  in  too  ? 

11.  How  are  nouns  plused  which  end  in  any  consonant  except 
ch  soft,  s,  z,  8S,  or  sh  f 

12.  What  is  the  plumedium  when  the  noun  ends  in  a  y  which  is 
preceded  by  a  vowel? 

13.  What  is  the  plumedium  of  key  ? 

14.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  s? 

15.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  es? 

16.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  ves? 

17.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  ies? 

18.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  e? 

19.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  ee  f 

20.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  en,  or  ren  ? 

21.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  ic,  or  ice? 

22.  Who*  nouns  are  plused  by  im  ? 

23.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  cef 

24.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  if 

25.  What  pronouns  are  plused  by  new  words  ? 

26.  What  nouns  are  plused  by  the  mere  sense  ? 

27.  What  pronouns  are  plused  by  imputation  ? 

28.  What  nouns  are  they  which  are  never  plused? 

29.  Are  there  any  nouns  which  are  always  uni  ? 

30.  Are  there  any  nouns  which  are  always  plus  ? 

31.  What  do  you  understand  the  ne-o  plumedium  to  be? 

32.  What  is  a  uniplus  ? 

33.  What  is  a  duplus  ? 

34.  Are  there  many  dupluses  in  the  language  ? 

35.  What  is  rule  seventh?     [Page  190.] 


202  ECTOLOGY. 

LESSON  XVIII. 
RATIODICTION   OF   ADJECTIVES,    AND   ADVERBS. 

The  ratiodiction  of  an  adjective,  as  well  as  that  of  an  ad- 
verb, is  the  expression  of  the  ratio  which  one  quantity  of 
the  same  quality,  has  to  another  quantity,  as  found  in  dif- 
ferent things ;  as, 

High,  higher ,  highest;  Small,  smaller ,  smallest. 

Adjectives,  and  adverbs  have  three  ratiodictions. 

1.  Primitive  Ratiodiction, 

2.  Bi-derivative  Ratiodiction,  and 

3.  Tri-derivative  Ratiodiction. 

[Bi,  from  bis,  two.     Tri,  from  trios,  three  together.] 

1.    PRIMITIVE   RATIODICTION. 

The  primitive  ratiodiction  is  the  expression  of  the  quality 
in  its  primary  state,  and  is  made  by  the  primitive  state  of 
the  word;  as,  High  tree,  Small  school,  Good  men. 

2.    BI-DERIVATIVE   RATIODICTION. 

The  bi-derivative  ratiodiction  is  an  indication  of  a  removal 
of  the  quality  from  its  primary  state,  by  expressing  an 
increase,  or  diminution  of  it  in  a  second  thing;  as,  That  tree 
is  higher  than  this ;  This  school  is  smaller  than  that ;  These 
men  are  better  than  those. 

3.    TRI-DERIVATIVE   RATIODICTION. 

The  tri-derivative  ratiodiction  is  the  expression  of  the  ex- 
tremity to  which  relative  quality  can  run;  and,  as  tri  indi- 
cates, it  must  be  made  where  there  are  as  many  as  three 
things  ;  as,  This  is  the  highest  tree  of  the  four ;  That  is  the 
smallest  school  of  the  three ;  These  are  the  best  men  of  the 
seven. 


ECTOLOGY.  203 


1.  Primitive,         long 

2.  Bi-derivativc,   longer  - 

3.  Tri-derivative,  longest  - 

1.  Primitive  short 

2.  Bi-derivative,   shorter 

3.  Tri-derivative,  shortest 


REMARKS. 

There  are  many  properties  which,  from  their  nature,  are  inca- 
pable of  increase,  or  diminution;  as,  perfection,  universality, 
straightness,  &c.  The  words  denoting  these,  have  no  ratiodic- 
tione ;  as,  perfect,  extreme. 

Lines  may  be  divided  into  relative,  and  absolute. 

3.  a  1. 
Shortest  long. 

2.  b  2. 
SJtorter  -  longer. 

3.  c  3. 

Short  longest. 

Now,  if  a  should  be  taken  as  an  absolute  line,  it  could  neither  be 
a  short  line,  nor  a  long  one.  As  a  relative  line,  however,  a  is  not 
only  a  short  line,  but  it  is  the  shortest  line.  And  not  only  is  a  the 
shortest  line,  but  it  is  a  long  line  t  What  is  it  which  makes  a  a 
short  line,  and  even  the  shortest  line  ?  Is  it  not  its  ratio  to  b  ? 
Could  a  be  denominated  the  shortest,  if  it  was  alone  f  "It  could 
not;  for  it  would  then  be  denominated  a  line  merely."  And  what 
is  it  which  gives  c  the  character  of  short  ?  Is  it  not  its  ratio  to  b  ? 
You  will  observe,  too,  that  c  is  not  only  a  short  line,  but  that  it  is 
also  a  long  line  I  Nor  is  this  all ;  for  c  is  not  only  a  long  line,  but 
it  is  the  longest  line.  These  lines  are  relative  lines ;  and  they  ac- 
quire their  respective  distinctive  characters  from  their  respective 
relative  bearings  upon  each  other.  Hence,  the  same  line  is  both 
long,  and  short :  and,  what  is  still  more  curious,  the  same  line  is 
both  the  shorter,  and  the  longer  line,  as  is  seen  in  b.  Now,  a  taken 
by  itself,  can  be  called  neither  a  long  line,  nor  a  short  line :  yet  a, 
taken  as  a  relative  line,  may  not  only  become  a  long  line,  and  a  short 
line,  but  the  shortest,  or  the  longest  line. 

It  may  be  well  to  remark  again,  that  lines,  in  general,  may  be 
divided  into  relative,  and  absolute.    A  relative  line  is  one  which  in 


204  ECTOLOGY. 

some  respect,  or  other,  is  affected  by  a  relative  bearing  which  it  has 
upon  another  line.  An  absolute  line  is  one  which  has  no  relative 
bearing  to  any  other  line,  and  which  consequently  can  never  be 
affected  by  any  relation  to  another  line. 

The  words  whieh  are  relative  in  their  application,  may  be  gradu- 
ated; as,  sacred,  beautiful,  delightful.  But  those  which  are  absolute 
in  their  application,  cannot  be  graduated;  as  perfect,  straight, 
supreme,  universal,  under,  into,  six,  one,  wooden,  as,  the,  and,  nor,  &c. 

I  will  briefly  comment  upon  one,  or  two  of  these  words.  Let 
me  take  delightful  from  the  first  class,  and  wooden  from  the  second. 

1.  Delightful. — Of  two  situations,  one  may  be  more  delightful 
than  the  other  •;  and  of  three,  or  more,  one  may  be  the  most  delight- 
ful. Then,  again,  in  the  case  of  the  two  only,  one  must  be  less 
delightful  than  the  other ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  three,  or  more, 
one  must  be  the  least  delightful.  Delightful,  then,  is  a  relative 
word.  That  is,  it  is  a  word  whose  application  with  respect  to 
amount  may  be  under  the  influence  of  a  relative  bearing  which  one 
thing  may  hold  to  another. 

2.  Wooden. — Of  two  things  which  are  wooden,  one  cannot  be 
more  wooden  than  the  other.  Wooden  is  absolute  in  its  amplica- 
tion. It  is  idle  to  compare  two  wooden  dishes  to  ascertain  whether 
one  is  more  wooden,  or  less  wooden  than  the  other.  The  word, 
wooden,  is  not  elastic,  so  to  speak,  that  it  can  be  extended,  and  con- 
tracted like  the  word  delightful.  And  the  reason  why  it  is  not,  is 
found  in  the  want  of  any  occasion  on  which  it  becomes  necessary 
to  enlarge,  and  diminish  the  meaning  of  this  adjective. 

All  adjectives  which  denote  a  fixed,  a  definite  amount,  or  quan- 
tity, are  absolute.  Hence,  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  perfect, 
square,  straight,  supreme,  certain,  sure,  &c,  are  all  absolute.  Two 
can  be  made  to  mean  neither  any  more,  nor  any  fewer  than  two 
units. 

Perfect  signifies  a  state  of  excellence,  which  excludes  all  defect. 
To  no  other  state  can  perfect  be  applied.  Perfection,  then,  is  a 
state,  a  condition,  which  is  absolute.  That  is,  the  perfection  of  a 
thing  cannot  be  increased,  and  diminished  by  any  relative  bearing 
of  two  perfections :  one  perfection  cannot  be  greater  than  another 
perfection,  any  more  than  one  dish  can  be  more  wooden  than 
another.  Perfection  is  a  thing  which  must  be  taken,  not  with 
another  perfection,  but  alone,  as  independent,  as  absolute. 

You  may  hold  up  two  colours,  say  two  reds,  to  see  which  is  the 
deeper  of  the  two.  So,  also,  you  may  hold  up  two  sticks  to  see 
which  of  the  two  is  the  longer.  But  you  cannot  hold  up  two  per- 
fections together  to  ascertain  which  of  the  two  is  the  greater.  Each 
perfection  must  be  taken  alone,  by  itself.  In  other  words,  each 
perfection  must  be  taken  as  absolute. 

Do  you  know  the  full  import  of  absolute  ?  This  word  is  primarily 
from  absolvo,  to  loose,  to  release,  to  set/ree,  to  render  independent. 
Thus,  a  mile  is  a  great  distance  when  connected  by  comparison  with 
an  inch.     But  when  the  mile  is  absolved,  loosed,  released,  or  set  free 


ECTOLOGY.  205 

from,  and  independent  of,  the  inch,  it  is  not  a  great  distance.  That 
is,  when  a  mile  is  taken  as  so  much  absolute  distance,  (distance  set 
free  from  all  other  distance,)  it  is  not  a  great  distance. 

One  mile  when  connected  by  comparison  with  a  hundred  miles, 
is  a  very  short  distance.  But,  when  the  one  mile  is  absolved,  set 
free  from  the  hundred  miles,  it  is  not  a  very  short  distance. 


SUBDIVISION. 

Adjectives  may  be  subdivided  into 

1.  Ratiodictive,  and 

2.  Ne-ratiodiotive. 

1.  The  adjective  which  expresses  a  relative  proportion,  is 
ratiodictive;  as, 

Bad,  worse,  worst;  High,  higher,  highest. 

2.  The  adjective  which  does  not  express  a  relative  pro- 
portion is  nerratiodictivc ;  as, 

/Six,  perfect,  certain,  all. 

GRADUATION  OP  ADJECTIVES. 

The  graduation  of  an  adjective,  is  a  gradual  presentation 
of  the  different  means  by  which  the  word  expresses  the 
ratio  that  one  quantity  of  the  same  quality,  has  to  another 
quantity,  as  found  in  different  things. 

Graduation  of  High. 

1.  Primitive  ratiodiction,         high. 

2.  Bi-derivative  ratiodiction,   higher.  [er.J 
8.  Tri-derivative  ratiodiction,  highest  [est.  J 

REMARKS. 

Wherever  derivative  is  not  strictly  applicable,  Bi,  or  Tri 
is  used  without  it,  as  in  the  graduation  of  good. 

In  the  following,  derivative  should  be  dropped  after  Bi, 
but  retained  after  Trir. 

18 


>6 

ECTOLOGY. 

Primitive  Ratiodiction.              Ei-ratiodiction. 

Tri-dcrivative  Ratiodiction. 

good 
little 

better 
less 

best 
least 

much 

more 

most 

bad 

worse 

worst 

evil 

worse 

worst " 

ill 

worse 

worst 

A  few  of  the 

Adjectives  which  cannot  be  Graduated. 

supreme 

direct 

conical 

chief 

perfect 

certain 

principal 

all-wise 

ceaseless 

endless 

omniscient 

round 

boundless 
universal 
faithless 
three 

omnipotent 
omnipresent 
graceless 
leather 

square 

perpendicular 

six 

silver 

extreme 

from 

and 

Adjectives  rarely  Graduated. 


Primitive  Ratiodiction.       Birderivative  Ratiodiction.      Tri-derivative  Ratiodiction. 


Hind 
Fore 
In 


hinder 
former 
Inner 


Out 

outer,  or  utter 

Up 

upper 

Under 



Mid,  Middle 



head 



top 



f  hindermost 

(.hindmost 

f  foremost 

(first 

f  innermost 

\  inmost 

{outmost 
utmost 
outermost 
uttermost 
{upmost 
uppermost 
undermost 
f  midmost 
\  middlemost 
headmost 
topmost 


RULES. 


1.  When  the  word  comprises  but  one  syllable,  it  is  gene- 
rally graduated  by  adding  er}  and  est,  to  its  radical  state : 

1.  Great,  greater,  greatest 

2.  Broad,  broader,  broadest 


ECTOLOGT. 


207 


2.  When  the  word  comprises  but  two  syllables,  and  ter- 
minates in  y,  or  mute  e,  it  is  generally  graduated  by  adding 
er,  and  est,  to  its  radical  state : 

1.  Handy,  handier,  handiest 

2.  Able,  abler,  ablest 

These  adjectives  may  receive  the  subs,  more,  and  most, 
instead  of  er,  and  est ;  as, 

1.  More  handy,  most  handy. 

2.  More  able,  most  able. 

They  may  also  take  the  subs,  less,  and  least;  as, 

1.  Less  handy,  least  handy. 

2.  Less  able,  least  able. 

REMARKS. 

When  the  adjective  has  more  than  one  syllable,  the  ratiodictions 
are  generally  made  by  the  subs ;  as,  more,  or  most,  less,  or  least, 
righteous. 

Dissyllables  ending  in  y,  change  y  into  i  before  er,  and  est ;  as, 
happy,  happier,  happiest. 

But  if  a  vowel  precedes,  y  is  not  changed  into  i,  before  er,  and 
est;  as,  gay,  gayer,  gayest. 

When  the  word  ends  with  a  single  consonant  which  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  vowel,  the  consonant  is  doubled  before  er,  and 
est;  as,  big,  bigger,  biggest. 

The  ratiodictions  of  some  adjectives  are  made  by  affixing  most 
to  the  radical  state  ;  as  upper,  upper  most. 

Graduate  the  words  in  the  following 


EXERCISES. 

soft 

well 

worst 

evil 

bad 

nearer 

ill 

best 

white 

farther 

less 

little 

many 

near 

much 

former 

sooner 

most 

bad 

good 
later 

near 

hard 

ill 

less 

much 

well 

far 

best 

worst 

late 

last 

least 

most 

less 

lest 

least 

last 

least 

soon 

nearer 

next 

long 

in 

farthest.  , 

foremost 

out 

forth 

first 

better 

head 

top 

208  ECTOLOOY. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  ratiodiction  ? 

2.  How  many  ratiodictions  belong  to  adjectives,  and  adverbs  ? 

3.  What  is  the  primitive  ratiodiction  ? 

4.  What  is  the  fo'-ratiodiction  ? 

5.  What  is  the  ^n'-ratiodiction  ? 

6.  When  is  derivative  omitted  ? 

7.  Are  all  ratiodictive  adjectives  graduated  by  different  forms 
of  the  same  word  ? 

$.  What  is  a  ratiodictive  word  ? 
9.  What  is  a  ne-ratiodictive  word  ? 

10.  What  is  the  graduation  of  a  word  ? 

11.  How  are  the  words  generally  graduated,  which  comprise 
but  one  syllable  ? 

12.  How  are  the  words  which  comprise  two  syllables,  and  ter- 
minate with  y,  or  mute  e,  generally  graduated  ? 


LESSON  XIX. 
4.    THE   PREPOSITION   DENOMINATION. 

The  preposition  denomination  is  a  small  class  of  uneordic- 
tive  branch  words  appropriated  to  the  nouns,  and  pronouns 
of  the  uncordictiv&  monos,  to  express  where,  or  what  one 
thing  is  in  respect  to  another ;  as,  Joel  was  in  the  house. 
[See  page  90,  and  the  author's  Exegesis.]  ^ 

Words  of  the  Preposition  Denomination. 


above 

as-touching 

before 

about 

amongst 

behind 

across 

around 

below 

after 

as 

beneath 

against 

as-to 

beside 

amid 

at 

besides 

amidst 

athwart 

because-of 

among 

atween 

between 

as-for 

atwixt 

betwixt 

ECTOLOGY. 

209 

beyond 

into 

toward 

but 

of 

towards 

by 

off 

through 

concerning 

on 

throughout 

down 

over 

under 

during 

past 

underneath 

except 

regarding 

unto 

excepting 

respecting 

tip 

for 

round 

upon 

from 

save 

with 

in 

to 

within 

instead-of 

touching 

without 

Note. — Where 

any 

of  these  words  close 

a  trone 

s,  or  apoeclad,  they 

are  adverbs  ;  as, 

He 

was  spoken  to  ;  The  books 

were  called  for. 

5.    THE   CONJUNCTION   DENOMINATION. 

The  conjunction  denomination  is  a  small  class  of  uncordic- 
tive  branch  words  appropriated  to  cordictive  sub  syllabanes, 
to  express  what  the  predicates  of  the  sub  syllabanes,  are  to  the 
predicates  of  the  supers;  as,  I  called  you;  but  you  did  not 
come.     [See  page  90.] 


The  words  of  the  Conjunction  Denomination, 

and 

although 
also 
as 

as-well-as 
again 
beside 
besides 
being 
but 
both 
either 
except 
excepting 
else 
•  even 
farther 
for 

[I  would  recommend  both  teacher,  and  pupil  to  read  with  care 
what  is  said  on  the  preposition,  and  the  conjunction  in  my  Exegesis.] 

18* 


further 

neither 

furthermore 

or 

hence 

nor 

however 

otherwise 

howsoever 
howbeit 

provided 
since 

if 

still 

inasmuch 

so 

lest 

than 

likewise 

then 

moreover 

thence 

nay 

therefore 

nathless 
not-only 
notwithstanding 
no 

though 
unless 
whereas 
whether 

now 

Yet 

210  ECTOLOGY. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  a  noun  9 

2.  What  is  a  pronoun  9 

3.  What  is  a  verb  9 

4.  What  is  a  preposition  9 

5.  What  is  a  conjunction  9 

6.  What  is  an  adjective  9 

7.  What  words  have  the  *  ? 

8.  Why  do  they  have  the  *  ? 

9.  Can  you  repeat  all  the  prepositions  9 

10.  Can  you  repeat  all  the  conjunctions  9 

11.  Can  you  repeat  all  the  pronouns  9 

12.  In  what  particulars  do  the  preposition,  and  the  conjunction, 
agree? 

In  the  following — Both  are  words;  both  are  signs;  both 
are  names ;  both  are  branch  names ;  both  are  uncordictive. 
That  is,  they  cannot  aid  in  forming  a  cordiction. 

13.  In  what  particulars  do  these  words  differ? 

1.  The  preposition  is  appropriated  to  an  individual  word; 
but  the  conjunction  is  appropriated  to  a  syllabaney  a  coi- 
tion of  words. 

2.  The  preposition  is  appropriated  to  uncordictive  nouns, 
and  pronouns ;  but  the  conjunction  is  appropriated  to  cordic- 
tive  syllabanes. 

3.  The  preposition  is  employed  to  express  tvhere,  or  what 
one  thing  is  in  respect  to  another  thing ;  but  the  conjunction 
is  employed  to  express  what  one  predicate  is  in  respect  to 
another  predicate. 

14.  What  is  a  predicate  9 

[A  predicate  is  whatever  is  said  of  a  thing ;  as,  John  is 
sick  ;  Is  he  well  f  If  it  rains  too  fast  to  be  out,  come  thou 
in ;  They  are  in  the  house ;  I  am  he ;  He  is  /;  I  am  not 
he;  I  am;  I  am  not.] 

Not,  in  "I  am  not  he,"  denies  the  identity  which  am  predicates 
of  me. 

In  "/  am  not,"  not  denies  the  existence  which  am  predicates 
of  me. 


ectolooy.  211 

LESSON  XX. 
7.  THE   SUBADJECTIVE   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  small  class  of  uncordictive  branch  words,  appropriated 
to  adjectives,  or  to  sujierior  subadjectives,  to  denote  some- 
thing which  has  a  branch  dependence  on  what  is  expressed 
by  adjectives,  or  by  superior  subadjectives;  as, 

1.  It  is  so  cold  that  I  must  have  a  fire 

2.  There  is  a  milk  white  bird. 

3.  A  blood  red  leaf. 

Cold  weather.     Cold  is  an  adjective. 
Too  cold  weather.     Too  is  a  subadjective. 
Much  too  cold  weather.     Much,  and  too  are  subadjectives 
Very  much  too  cold  weather.      Very,  much,  too,  subadjectives. 
This  boy's  mother's  father's  son.     This,    boy's,    and   mother' sr   aro 

subadjectives. 


8.    THE   ADVERB   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  large  class  of  uncordictive  branch  words,  appropriated 
to  verbs  to  express  something  which  has  a  branch  depend- 
ence upon  whatever  verbs  denote,  whether  with,  or  without 
restriction;  as, 

1.  John  certainly  pronounced  the  words.  [Without  re- 
striction.'] 

2.  John  certainly  pronounced  the  words  with  propriety. 
[  With  restriction.'] 

3.  John  pronounced  the  words  properly.  [  Without  re- 
striction.] 

4.  Henry  was  not  hurt.     [  Without  restriction.] 

5.  Henry  was  not  hurt  by  a  fall.     [  With  restriction.] 

Here,  not  does  not  deny  the  general  act,  but  the  restricted  one 
— was  not  hurt  by  a  fall. 

6.  James  can  not  write  with  this  pen.    [  With  restriction.] 

7.  James  can  not  write.     [  Without  restriction.] 

8.  It  is  written,  Man  shall  not  live.  [Without  restric- 
tion.] 


212 


ECTOLOGY. 


9.  It  is  written,  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone.   [  With 
restriction.'] 


9.    THE   SUBADVERB   DENOMINATION, 

Is  a  small  class  of  uncordictive  branch  words  appropriated 
to  adverbs,  or  to  superior  sxibadverbs,  to  denote  something 
which  has  a  branch  dependence  upon  what  is  expressed  by 
adverbs,  or  superior  subadverbs ;  as, 

1.  Jacob  wrote  his  copy  very  slowly,  and  quite  exact. 

2.  This  boy  writes  much  too  fast. 

3.  The  young  lady  reads  exceedingly  well. 


Words  of  the  Adverb  Denomination. 


aback 

agog 

asunder 

downward 

abaft 

ahead 

astray 

downright 

abed 

alee 

atrip 

eaehwhere 

about 

aloft 

away 

enough 

aboard  . 

almost 

awayward 

entirely 

above 

alone 

awry 

exceedingly 

abreast 

along 

awhile 

excessively 

abroad 

alongside 

aweather 

equally 

according 

alongst 

aweigh 

else 

accordingly 

aloof 

aye 

elsewhere 

across 

alow 

ay 

everywhere 

adrift 

all 

back 

erelong 

adown 

also 

backwards 

even 

aflat 

altogether 

barely 

ever 

afield 

already 

before 

far 

afloat 

altar-wise 

below 

farther 

afoot 

amiss 

besides 

farthermore 

afront 

anywhere 

by-and-by 

further 

aforehand 

apace 

by-the-by 

furthermore 

aforetime 

apart 

but 

furthest 

afoul 

apiece 

certes 

full 

afresh 

aright 

chiefly 

full-butt 

aft,  after 

around 

clear 

fully 

afterall 

as 

consequently 

first 

afterward 

askant 

counter 

forsooth 

afterwards 

ashore 

contrariwise 

frequently 

again 

aside 

daily 

forth 

agale 

askew 

double 

fourthly 

aground 

astride 

doubtless 

forthwith 

ago 

assuredly 

down 

greatly 

CLASSIOLOGY. 

21 

haply 

much 

rather 

together 

hardly 

namely 

same 

too 

hence 

nathmore 

self-evidently 

totally 

henceforth 

nay 

selfishly 

toward 

henceforward 

near 

since 

towards 

here 

nearer 

so 

twice 

hereabout 

nearest 

somewhere 

unawares 

hereabouts 

near 

somehow 

until 

hereafter 

nearly 

soon 

up 

hereof 

needs 

sound 

well 

heretofore 

never 

still 

when 

herewith 

nevermore 

straightway 

whence 

hither 

nigh 

surely 

whencesoever 

hitherto 

no 

tan-tiv-y 

whenever 

homeward 

not 

there 

where 

homewards 

now 

thereabout 

whereabout 

how 

nowhere 

thereabouts 

whereabouts 

howsoever 

nowise 

thereafter 

whereat 

ill 

of 

thereat 

whereby 

indeed 

off 

thereby 

wherein 

inward 

off-hand 

therefor 

whereinto 

inwards 

on 

therefrom 

'  whereof 

last 

once 

therein 

whereon 

late 

only 

thereof 

whereso 

later 

onward 

thereon 

wheresoever 

latest 

othergates 

thereout     < 

whereto 

leeward 

otherwhere 

thereto 

whereunto 

like 

otherwhiles 

thereunder 

whereupon 

likely 

otherwise 

thereupon 

wherever 

likewise 

out 

therewhile 

wherewith 

long 

overthwartly 

therewith 

wherewithal 

mainly 

partly 

therewithal 

while 

manly 

*  peradventure 

thick 

whileom 

man-like 

perchance 

thin 

whither 

merely 

perhaps 

thither 

whithersoever 

more 

possibly 

thitherward 

whole 

most 

quickly 

tiv-y 

why 

motherly 

quite 

to-day 

yea,  yes 

THE   INTERJECTION    DENOMINATION. 

The  interjection  denomination  is  a  small  class  of  intensive 
trunk  signs  which  reject  all  branch  words,  and  express,  indi- 
vidually, the  meaning  of  an  entire  sentence,  in  the  most 
"hurried  and  impressive  manner ;  as, 

1.  0  that  my  grief  were  thoroughly  weighed,  and  my 


214 


CLASSIOLOQY. 


calamities  laid  together  in  the  balance,  for  the  arrows  of  the 
Almighty  are  within  me. 

This  is  the  reply  of  Job  to  those  who  charged  him  with  sin, 
folly,  and  impatience. 

0  that  my  grief  were  thoroughly  weighed,  &c. 

That  is,  /  most  heartily  wish   that  my   grief  was   thoroughly 
weighed,  &c. 

Here,  0  is  synonymous  with  the  sentence,  /  most  heartily  wish. 

The  words  of  the  Interjection  Denomination. 


ah 

ha 

holla 

pish 

aha 

ha  ha  ha 

hurrah 

poh 

alack 

ha  hah 

huzza 

pshaw 

alas 

hail* 

hush* 

pugh 

all  hail 

hark* 

io 

see* 

avaunt 

heigh 

lo 

soho 

begone 

heighho 

look* 

strange* 

behold* 

hey 

mum 

tush* 

eh 

heyday 

0 

welcome* 

fie 

hist 

off* 

welladay 

foh 

ho 

oh 

what* 

Those  which  have  the  *,  are  not  always  interjections. 

[In  my  Exegesis,  I  have  several  pages  of  reflections  upon  this 
class  of  words.] 


LESSON  XXI. 
PROVING  RULES. 


Rule  I. 

The  uncordictive  branch  word  which  can  be  appropriated 
to  the  mono,  they  are  there,  is  a  conjunction. 

,         they  are  there. 

1.  But  they  are  there. 

2.  And  they  are  there. 

3.  For  they  are  there. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  215 


REMARKS. 


In  the  application  of  this  Rule,  the  pupil  should  give  close  atten- 
tion to  the  difference  between  mere  sound,  and  sense.  There  are 
many  uncordictive  branch  words  which  can  be  placed  before  the  pre- 
ceding mono,  that  are  not  conjunctions.  There  is  a  difference 
between  appropriating  a  word  to  this  mono,  and  appropriating  a 
"word  to  some  one  word  of  this  mono,  or  to  a  word  of  some  super 
mono  which  may  be  implied,  or  suggested,  by  the  uncordictive  word 
that  may  be  introduced. 

For  instance,  when  may  be  placed  before  "  they  are  there' — but, 
then,  when  is  not  a  conjunction. 

1.  When  "they  are  there." 

"  When'''  is  not  appropriated  to  the  mono,  "  they  are  there"  How, 
then,  can  when  be  a  conjunction  by  this  Rule. 

"When"  is  not  only  not  appropriated  to  this  mono,  but  it  is  not 
appropriated  to  &njpart,  to  any  word^of  this  mono. 

"When"  suggests  a  super  mono,  and  is  appropriated  to  some 
verb  in  the  suggested  super  mono. 

When  they  are  there. 

Well,  what  will  happen  when  they  are  there  ?  It  may  be  ono 
thing,  and  it  may  be  another. 

If  we  say,  it  will  rain,  when  is  appropriated  to  the  verb  rain  ; 
as,  [It  will  rain  when]  (they  are  there.) 

(See  Exegesis,  page  133.) 

2.  Surely  "they  are  there." 

"Surely"  is  not  appropriated  to  the  mono,  but  to  are,  a  mere 
part  of  the  mono.  / 

Rule  II. 

An  uncordictive  branch  word  which  can  be  appropriated 
to  them,  is  a,  preposition. 

,        them. 

1.  Of  them. 

2.  Under  them. 

3.  For  them. 


Rule  HI. 
An  uncordictive  branch  word  which  can  be  appropriated 


216 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


to  high,  strong,  Mack,  redder,  man's,  or  men's,  is  a  subad- 
jective. 

high. 

strong. 

black. 

redder. 

man's. 

men's. 

Application  of  the  Rule  to  too,  very,  coal,  much,  this,  and 


1.  Too  high. 

2.  Very  strong. 

3.  Coal  black. 

4.  Much  redder. 

5.  This  man's. 

6.  These  men's. 


Rule  IV. 

The  uncordiciive  branch  word  which  can  be  appropriated 
to  was,  fly,  look,  live,  or  spoken,  is  an  adverb. 


live 

% 

look 
spoken 


Application  of  the  Rule  to  well,  up,  down,  sharply,  here, 
to,  of,  for,  with,  fast,  and  slowly. 

1.  There  was. 

2.  Live  well. 

3.  Fly  up,  down. 

4.  Look  sharply. 

5.  Look  here. 

6.  Spoken  to,  of,  for,  with, 

7.  Was  not. 

8.  Fly  fast,  slowly. 


CLASSIOLOGT.  217 


CAUTION   TO   THE   PUPIL. 


Bo  not  attempt  to  appropriate  a  noun,  or  a  pronoun  to 
any  of  the  verbs  mentioned  in  this  Rule.  You  are  cautioned 
against  this,  because  even  teachers,  from  too  slight  attention 
to  the  Rule,  not  unfrequently  attempt  to  prove  the  pronouns, 
It  they,  and  it,  by  saying,  /  live ;   They  fly,  &c. 

These  do  not  apprehend  the  Rule  aright.  Their  practice 
indicates  that  the  Rule  is  mere  sound.  The  Rule,  however, 
is  replete  with  precision,  and  direction.  For  it  says,  almost 
expressly,  that  the  word  to  be  proved,  is  a  branch  word  j 
and  it  clearly  affirms  that  the  word  to  be  proved,  must  be 
appropriated  to  was,  fly,  live,  or  spoken.  I  is  not  appropri- 
ated to  live,  but  live  is  appropriated  to  I. 


Rule  V. 

An  uncordictive  branch  word  which  can  be  appropriated 
to  thing,  to  things,  or  to  Adams,  without  any  regard  to  the 
distinction  of  cordictive,  or  uncordictive  nouns,  is  an  adjec- 
tive. 

,         thing. 

,         things. 

,         Adams. 

Application  of  the  Rule  to  high,  strong,  black,  redder,  &c. 

1.  High  thing. 

2.  Strong  thing. 

3.  Black  thing. 

4.  Redder  things. 
6.  Man's  things. 

6.  Jane  Adams. 

7.  Men's  things. 

8.  Strange  things. 

9.  Running  things. 

10.  Flying  things. 

11.  Sharp  thing. 

12.  Mrs.  Adams. 

10 


218  CLASSIOLOGY. 

13.  Silk  things. 

14.  Leather  things. 

15.  Gold  things. 

16.  John  Adams. 

17.  Mr.  Adams. 

18.  An  Adams. 


LESSON  XXII. 

SECOND   SPECIMEN  OP  PROVING. 

Too,  here,  there,  but,  if,  than,  unless,  when,  where,  in,  up, 
indeed,  among,  at,  near,  high,  surely,  Jane,  Miss,  Mr.,  an, 
his,  as,  for. 

1.  Too  high — too,  a  subadjeetive.     Rule  3. 

2.  Look  here — here,  an  adverb.     Rule  4. 

3.  Look  there — there,  an  adverb.     Ride  4. 

4.  But  they  are  there — but,  a  conjunction.     Rule  1. 

5.  If  they  are  there — if,  a  conjunction.     Rule  1. 

6.  Than  they  are  there — than,  a  conjunction.     Rule  1. 

[I  am  no  more  there]  (than  they  are  there.) 

7.  Unless  they  are  there— -unless,  a  conjunction.     Rule  1. 

8.  Fly  when — when,  an  adverb.     Rule  4. 

9.  Look  in — in,  an  adverb.     Ride  4. 

10.  Look  where-' — where,  an  adverb.     Rule  4. 

11.  Fly  up— up,  an  adverb.     Rule  4. 

12.  Was  indeed — indeed,  an  adverb.     Rule  4. 

13.  Among  them — among,  a  preposition.     Rule  2. 

14.  At  them — at,  a  preposition.     i?w7e  2. 

15.  Fly  near — near, t an  adverb.     jRwfe  4.  ^ 

16.  JVear  things — near,  an  adjective.     ifo*&  5. 

17.  Fly  high — high,  an  adverb.     Rule  4. 

18.  High  things — high,  an  adjective.     Rule  4. 

19.  Surely  was — surely,  an  adverb,     ifotfe  4. 

20.  t/cme  Adams — Jane,  an  adjective,     j&wfe  5. 

21.  Miss  Adams — Miss,  an  adjective.     Rule  5. 

22.  Miss  Man's  hat — Miss,  a  subadjeetive.     Rule  Z< 

23.  Mr.  Adams — Mr.,  an  adjective.     Rule  5. 


CLASSTOLOQY.  219 

24.  Mr,  Man's  bat — Mr.,  a  subadjective.     Rule  3. 

25.  An  Adams — an,  an  adjective.     Rule  5. 

26.  An  Adams'  hat — an,  a  subadjective.      Rule  3. 

27.  His  things — his,  an  adjective.     Rule  5. 

28.  His  man's  hat — his,  a  subadjective.     Rule  3. 

29.  -4s  they  are  there — as,  a  conjunction,     ifoZe  1. 
*\  Fly  as — as,  an  adverb.     i?wfe  4. 

[Fly  as]  (he  approaches.) 
That  is,  fly  when  he  approaches. 
1.  As  high — as,  a  subadjective.     Rule  3, 
(&>  high.) 

32.  For  they  are  there — -for,  a  conjunction.     Rule  1. 

(Because  they  are  there.) 

33.  .Far  them— ;/ar,  a  preposition.     Rule  2, 
34    Spoken  for — -for,  an  adverb.     Rule  4. 

Rule  I. 
,        they  are  there. 

Rule  IL 
,         them. 

Rule  IIL 

,         high. 
,         strong, 
black. 
,         redder 
,         man's. 
,         mens. 

Rule  IV 

y  was 
,  live 
,         look 

.      fly 

y        spoken 


220  CLASSIOLOGY. 


Rule  V. 


thing. 

things. 

Adams. 


DIRECTIONS. 

1.  When  the  branch  word  has  different  denominational 
characters,  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  portray  each  in 
proof. 

2.  The  mono,  "  they  are  there,"  may  be  considered  a 
trone,  or  a  cordictive  clad,  as  occasion  may  require.  When 
the  pupil  cannot  appropriate  the  conjunction  to  this  mono 
without  supplying  a  super  mono,  he  may  form  a  trone 
which  will  enable  him  to  appropriate  the  conjunction  to  the 
mono,  they  are  there.  For  instance — than  seems  to  require 
a  trone  to  give  it  a  clear  conjunction  character : 

than  they  are  there. 
[I  am  no  more  there]  (than  they  are  there.) 

The  tense  may  also  be  changed  to  make  the  conjunction 
fit  this  cordictive  clad — they  were  there. 


EXERCISES, 

Under  the  preceding  Rides. 

Correctly,  softly,  prudently,  well,  accordingly,  badly,  and, 
though,  although,  nearer,  verily,  sure,  indeed,  positively,  no, 
not,  nay,  never,  white,  farther,  many,  near,  why,  rather, 
sooner,  chief,  especially,  so,  as,  equally,  thus,  like,  otherwise, 
else,  differently,  unlike,  most,  nearly,  partially,  partly, 
scarcely,  hardly,  sparingly,  scantily,  less,  much,  bountifully, 
liberally,  best,  worse,  least,  most,  or,  last,  nearer,  or,  next, 
farthest,  foremost,  nor,  first,  better,  worse,  perfect,  evil,  or, 
ill,  best,  less,  little,  much,  therefore,  and,  yet,  former,  bad, 
good,  as,  ill,  side-wise,  how,  certainly,  truly,  undoubtedly, 


CLASSIOLOQY.  221 

yes,  and,  so,  later,  as,  well,  far,  for,  although,  late,  at,  all, 
namely,  universally,  together,  generally,  conjunctively,  off, 
separately,  apart,  asunder,  singly,  alone,  apiece,  again, 
though,  for,  yet,  hereafter,  already,  hitherto,  last,  that,  but, 
although,  then,  either,  since,  also,  or,  whereas,  both,  than, 
wherefore,  besides,  unless,  beside,  at,  nevertheless,  lest, 
around,  notwithstanding,  but,  into,  of,  after,  but,  moreover, 
least,  because,  amongst,  howbeit,  across,  not,  only,  nay, 
likewise,  inasmuch,  nathless,  if,  among,  soon,  primarily, 
previously,  at,  once,  by,  and,  whereby,  in,  ill,  its,  toward, 
red,  against,  for,  behind,  during,  neither,  its,  her,  our,  my, 
lady's,  man's,  near,  soon,  boy's,  their,  your,  red,  yellow, 
white,  much,  short,  new,  old,  black,  blue,  upper,  lower, 
mine,  yours,  girls',  boy's,  tree's,  trees',  bitter,  little,  late, 
far,  many,  better,  worse,  less,  more,  least,  farther,  father's, 
fathers',  uncle's,  aunts',  aunt's,  next,  worst,  best,  fore, 
former,  latter,  foremost,  first,  book's,  books',  unto,  an, 
underneath,  atwixt,  long,  athwart,  not,  never,  in,  but,  or,  of, 
over,  here,  there,  were,  away,  whereon,  wherein,  in,  at,  on, 
thither,  whither,  hitherward,  whitherward,  hence,  thence, 
gift,  thence,  yet,  otherwise,  whether,  or,  even,  wherever,  out, 
forth,  forthwith,  of,  to,  ahead,  behind,  too,  now,  when,  then, 
whenever,  after,  as,  afore,  never,  ever,  aforetime,  about, 
straight,  immediately,  wherewith,  thereby,  great,  secondly, 
thirdly,  again,  once,  twice,  perhaps,  peradventure,  likely, 
possibly,  correctly,  softly,  prudently,  well,  accordingly,  badly, 
and,  though,  above,  and,  although,  nearer,  verily,  surely, 
indeed,  positively,  no,  not,  any,  never,  not,  farther,  many, 
near,  why,  rather,  sooner,  chiefly,  especially,  so,  as,  equally, 
thtfs,  like,  otherwise,  else,  differently,  unlike,  most,  nearly, 
partially,  partly,  scarcely,  hardly,  sparingly,  scantily,  less, 
much,  bountifully,  liberally,  best,  worst,  least,  most,  least, 
or,  last,  nearest,  or,  next,  farthest,  foremost,  or,  first,  better, 
worse,  perfect,  evil,  or,  ill,  best,  less,  little,  much,  therefore, 
and,  yet,  former,  bad,  good,  as,  ill,  sidewise,  how,  certainly, 
truly,  undoubtedly,  yes,  and,  so,  later,  as,  as-well-as,  well, 
far,  for,  although,  late,  at,  all,  namely,  universally,  together, 
generally,  conjunctively,  off,  separately,  apart,  asunder,  singly, 
alone,  apiece,  therefore. 

19* 


222  classioloqy. 

LESSON  XXIII. 
SUBDIVISION   OP  VERBS. 

Verbs  are  subdivided  upon  the  basis  of  the  number  of 
cordictive,  and  uncordictive  nouns,  and  pronouns  with  which 
they  have  a  sense  connection,  into 

1.  Mono,  2.  Duo,  3.  Uni,  and  4.  Ambi. 
[Monos,  one;  Duo,  two.     Uni,  one;  Ambi,  two.] 

1.    MONO   VERBS. 

A  mono  verb  is  one  which  has  a  sense  relation  with  one 
cordictive  noun,  or  with  one  cordictive  pronoun  only ;  as, 

1.  Snowfalls. 

2.  John  walks. 

3.  Nathaniel  must  be  punished. 

4.  He  laughs. 

5.  She  smiles. 

2.  DUO   VERBS. 

A  duo  verb  is  one  which  has  a  sense  relation  with  one 
cordictive,  and  with  one  uncordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  only  ; 
as, 

1.  Jane  enjoys  good  health. 

2.  Sarah  resembles  him. 

3.  Joseph  has  a  new  book. 

3.  UNI  VERBS. 

A  uni  verb  is  one  which  has  a  sense  relation  with  one 
uncordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  only;  as,  I  saw  the  birds 
fly  ;  James  desired  me  to  return.     [Fly,  return.] 

4.   AMBI  VERBS. 

An  ambi  verb  is  one  which  has  a  sense  relation  with  two 
uncordictive  nouns,  or  pronouns  only;  as,  John  wished  me 
to  write  the  letters.     [  Write.~\ 

Note. — The  uni,  and  the  ambi  verbs  are  found  in  the  demimono 
only. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  223 


OBSERVATIONS. 


1.  Verbs  which  are  always  inceptive,  are  always  mono. 
[Page  137.] 

2.  Every  inceptive,  as  well  as  every  medial  verb,  is  mono; 
as,  John  must  have  written. 

3.  The  final  verb,  and  the  solo  verb  are  the  only  ones 
which  can  be  duo. 

4.  If  the  mono  has  but  one  noun,  or  pronoun,  all  the 
verbs  are  mono  ;  as,  James  will  have  been  punished. 

5.  If  the  mono  has  two  nouns,  two  pronouns,  or  one  noun, 
and  one  pronoun,  the  final,  or  the  solo  verb  which  may  be 
in  it,  is  duo;  as,  Cato  must  have  hilled  himself;  Moses 
served  Jethro ;  They  hurt  us. 

6.  There  may  be  a  demimono  which  has  neither  a  noun, 
nor  a  pronoun ;  as,  The  horse  was  inclined  (to  run.) 

7.  If  there  is  neither  a  noun,  nor  a  pronoun  in  the  demi- 
mono, and  the  verb  in  the  demimono  has  a  sense  relation  with 
the  cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  of  the  we-demimono,  it  is  a 
mono  verb ;  as,  [The  horse  was  inclined]  (to  run.) 

8.  If  the  verb  in  the  demimono  has  a  sense  relation  with 
the  cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  of  the  ne-demimono,  and 
with  the  uncordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  of  the  demimono,  it 
is  a  duo  verb ;  as,  [I  am]  (to  write  a  letter.) 

9.  No  demimono  can  have  more  than  one  noun  ',  nor  can 
any  demimono  have  more  than  one  pronoun. 

10.  No  demimono  can  have  more  than  three  verbs.  [To 
Jiave  been  punished.] 

11.  The  word,  have,  as  an  inceptive  verb  in  the  demimono, 
has  no  sense  relation  with  any  noun,  or  pronoun;  as,  They 
were  to  have  written  letters. 

12.  Have,  as  an  inceptive  verb  in  the  7i€-demimono,  has  a 
sense  relation  with  the  cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun ;  as, 
They  have  written  their  copies. 

13.  Where  have  is  a  medial  verb,  and  is  used  to  fix  the 
time  of  the  mono,  it  has  no  sense  relation  with  any  noun,  or 
pronoun;  as,  John  will  have  learned  his  lesson  by  ono 
o'clock. 


224  CLASSTOLOGY. 


REFLECTIONS. 

Why  not  use  transitive  and  intransitive,  inquires  an  old  school 
grammarian  ? 

Because  these  words  are  not  applicable.  These  words  are  employed  in  the  old 
grammars:  but  they  do  not  answer  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  there  used 
better  than  any  other  two  words  would.  In  subdividing  the  great  verb  family, 
the  cause  of  truth,  and  the  good  of  both  teacher  and  pupil  would  be  subserved  as 
well  by  the  use  of  rock,  and  river,  as  by  the  use  of  transitive  and  intransitive.  True, 
rod;  and  river  mean  nothing  which  pertains  to  verbs.  But  do  transitive  and  intran- 
sitive mean  any  thing  which  belongs  to  verbs  ?  The  child  is  taught  to  call  resem- 
bles a  transitive  verb.  But  why  not  teach  the  child  to  denominate  resembles  a  river 
Verb!  True,  there  is  nothing  about  resembles  which  is  like  a  river.  Nor  is  thero 
any  thing  about  this  verb  which  is  like  the  true  meaning  of  transitive.  The  old 
grammars  tell  us  that  a  transitive  verb  expresses  an  action  which  passes  from  its 
agent,  and  terminates  on  an  object.  But,  as  resembles  does  not  express  any  action 
at  all,  how  can  it  be  a  transitive  verb  ?  In  the  following  instance,  strilces  is  called 
an  intransitive  verb : 

John  strikes  on  the  ground. 

Does  not  this  verb  express  an  action  which  passes  from  John,  and  terminates  on 
the  ground  ? 
In  the  following,  strilces  is  a  transitive  verb : 

James  strikes  the  ground. 

Now,  does  not  the  action  of  John,  as  well  as  that  of  James,  terminate  upon  the 
ground  ? 

The  following  merits  attention  quite  as  much  as  either  of  the  preceding : 

The  ground  was  struck  by  John. 

Although  we  are  told  in  the  old  grammars,  that  a  transitive  verb  is  one  which 
expresses  an  action  that  passes  from  an  agent,  and  terminates  on  an  object,  yet 
struck  is  not  called  a  transitive  verb ! 

Mr.  John  S.  Hart,  who  represents  himself  as  "Principal  of  the  Philadelphia 
High  School,  and  Member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,"  has  compiled  an 
English  grammar.    Under  page  62,  he  says : 

"  A  transitive  verb  is  one  which  requires  an  objective  case  after 
it;  as,  James  writes  a  letter." 

If  this  sentence  has  any  bearing  upon  the  subject  under  consideration,  it  has 
something  which  7  am  unable  to  understand.  Mr.  Hart  says,  that  a  transitive 
verb  is  one  which  requires  an  objective  case  after  it.  In  the  following  sentence, 
see  is  transitive — yet  no  objective  case  can  be  placed  after  it : 

Whom  did  you  see  ? 

Here,  whom,  the  objective  case,  is  actually  put  before  did,  the  auxiliary  verb ! 
To  construct  this  sentence  according  to  Mr.  Hart,  it  would  read  as  follows : 

Did  you  see  whom  ? 

There  is  an  objection  to  Mr.  Hart's  definition  of  a  transitive  verb,  that  springs  out 
of  the  difficulty  with  which  the  child  meets  in  deciding  what  the  objective  case  is. 
Mr.  Hart  informs  the  pupil  that  "  A  transitive  v«rb  is  one  which  requires  an  ob- 
jective case  after  it."    But  the  pupil  turns  to  Mr.  Hart  with  this  problem : 

"What  is  the  objective  case?" 

Can  the  learned  Murray  mender  solve  the  child's  problem?  No!  Under  page 
47,  Mr.  Hart  informs  the  child,  that  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  are  alile. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  225 

"  107,  The  nominative  and  objective  are  alike."     Page  47. 

Under  page  45,  Mr.  Hart  defines  these  two  cases: 

1.  "  The  nominative  case  is  that  in  which  something  is  asserted 
of  the  noun." 

2.  "The  objective  case  is  that  in  which  the  noun  is  the  object 
of  some  verb  or  preposition." 

Under  page  46,  Mr.  Hart  resumes  the  suhject  of  the  cases ;  and  here  he  says 
that 

"  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  pupil  should  learn  as 
early  as  possible  to  distinguish  between  the  nominative  and  objec- 
tive cases.  The  possessive  may  be  recognised  at  once  by  its  form. 
But  to  distinguish  readily  the  other  two,  is  one  of  the  greatest 
stumbling  blocks  to  beginners!" 

Yet  this  compiler  attempts  to  define  a  transitive  verh  upon  the  distinctive  fact 
"that  it  requires  the  objective  case  after  it ! 

But  from  what  is  the  child  to  derive  his  knowledge  of  the  three  cases?  Mr. 
Hart  has  furnished  him  with  the  following  propositions  which  are  devoid  of  all 
meaning,  all  sense,  and  of  all  grammatical  propriety  : 

1.  "  The  nominative  case  is  that  in  which  something  is  asserted 
of  the  noun." 

2.  "  The  possessive  case  is  that  in  which  something  belongs  to 
the  noun." 

3.  "  The  objective  case  is  that  in  which  the  noun  is  the  object  of 
some  verb,  or  preposition." 

The  following  is  Mr.  Hart's  definition  of  an  intransitive  verb : 

"An  intransitive  verb  is  one  which  does  not  require  an  objective 
case  after  it;  as,  John  sleeps." 

One  would  presume  from  the  fact  that  Mr.  Hart  is  "  member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,"  that  he  would  not  attempt  to  define  a  thing  by  stating  what 
it  does  not  do !  It  seems  to  me,  though  I  am  not  "  member  of"  any  Philosophical 
Society,  that  in  defining  an  intransitive  verb,  it  would  not  be  at  all  inconsistent 
with  philosophy,  to  say  what  it  requires.  But  strange  as  it  may  appear  to  philoso- 
phers in  general,  here  is  a  grammarian  who  is  not  only  uPrincipal  of  the  Philadelr 
2>hia  High  School,"  but  "Member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,"  who 
attempts  to  define  an  intransitive  verb  by  specifying,  not  what  it  does  require,  but 
what  it  does  not  require ! 

"  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  which  does  not  require  an  objective 
case  after  it!" 

If  we  wish  to  define  a  hatter  do  we  tell  what  he  does  not  make,  or  what 
he  does  make  ?    Mr.  Hart's  way  of  defining  a  hatter  seems  to  be  this : 

A  hatter  is  one  who  does  not  make  boots  ! 
From  this,  Mr.  Hart  seems  to  conclude  that  it  follows  that  every  person  who  does 
not  make  boots,  is  a  hatter ! 

Almost  every  person  would  instinctively  define  a  hatter  as  follows : 

A  hatter  is  one  who  makes  hats. 

And  surely  there  is  no  grammarian  who  is  "  member  of"  a  philosophical  society, 
that  would  not  define  any  thing  whatever  upon  the  same  affirmative  principles  on 
whirl)  the  mere  child  would  define  a  hatter  1 

But,  if  an  intransitive  verb  is  one  which  does  not  require  an  objective  case,  why  is 
Bot  every  passive  verb  intransitive  t 


22G  CLASSIOLOQY. 

1.  The  world  was  created  by  God. 

2.  The  child  has  been  taught. 

3.  The  letter  had  been  written. 

Neither  was  created,  has  been  taught,  nor  7iad  been  written,  requires  an  objective 
Case ;  still  Mr.  Hart  himself  calls  these  verbs  not  intransitive,  but  passive ! 

When  L.  Murray  constructed  his  English  grammar,  the  basis  on  which  verbs 
were  subdivided,  was  the  transitive  character  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  verb. 
And  even  now,  among  old  school  grammarians  in  general,  this  character  of  the 
action  expressed  by  the  verb,  is  the  basis  of  the  subdivision  of  verbs  into  transitive 
and  intransitive.  But  this  character  of  the  action  is  now  considered  by  many  as 
the  mere  figment  of  the  mind.  Among  these  may  be  reckoned  Mr.  Hart  who  has 
rejected  this  fiction  for  that  on  which  he  has  attempted  to  subdivide  verbs  into 
transitive  and  intransitive.  Mr.  Hart  not  only  saw  that  every  passive  verb  which 
expresses  action,  signifies  a  transitive  action ;  and,  that  hence  every  such  verb  is  as 
much  transitive  as  any  verbs  which  are  actually  called  transitive,  but  he  saw 
also  that  thousands  of  verbs,  which  are  denominated  transitive,  express  no  action 
whatever.    For  instance : — 

1.  John  enjoys  good  health. 

2.  Stephen  resembles  his  mother. 

3.  James  has  a  new  book. 

4.  The  timber  wants  strength  and  solidity. 

Enjoys,  resembles,  has,  and  wants  are  transitive.  Yet  not  one  of  the  four  verbs 
signifies  an  action  of  any  description. 

Mr.  Hart  has  not  been  willing  to  call  these  verbs  transitive  upon  the  old  figment 
principle;  hence  he  denominates  them  transitive  upon  a  new  figment  principle. 

Now,  to  arrest  the  progress  of  fiction  in  the  subdivision  of  verbs,  I  have  taken 
great  pains  to  place  this  subdivision  upon  a  reality  which  even  the  mere  child  can 
readily  understand.  And  to  express  the  distinctive  character  which  verbs  derive 
from  this  reality  on  which  they  are  subdivided,  I  employ, 

Mono,  Duo,  Uni,  and  Ambi. 

The  several  remarks  in  this  Lesson,  which  fall  under  the  general  head  of  Obser- 
vations, and  which  are  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  &c,  are  facts  in  the 
science  of  English  grammar,  of  which  every  old  school  grammarian  is  perfectly 
ignorant.  Had  Mr.  Murray  known  these  facts  when  he  compiled  his  grammar, 
he  never  would  have  subdivided  verbs  into  active,  passive,  and  neuter.  And  had 
his  pretended  simplifiers  known  these  facts,  they  would  not  have  subdivided  verbs 
iuto  transitive  and  intransitive. 

The  old  subdivision  of  verbs,  numerous  as  it  is,  does  not  make  any  difference 
between  a  neuter  verb  which  has  a  sense  relation  with  the  nominative  case,  and 
one  which  has  a  sense  relation  with  an  objective  case : — 

1.  He  run. 

2.  James  told  me  to  run. 

In  both,  run  is  a  neuter  verb.  But,  in  the  first,  this  neuter  verb  is  connected 
with  he,  the  nominative :  in  the  second,  however,  this  neuter  verb  is  connected 
with  me,  the  objective  case !  To  supply  this  deficiency  in  the  old  grammars,  I  use 
uni,  and  ambi. 

I  would  refer  the  reader  to  the  discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  Appeal.  Should 
an  old  school  grammarian,  after  reading  what  is  here,  and  what  is  there  said, 
upon  the  use  of  transitive,  and  intransitive,  decide  in  favour  of  these  words,  I  should 
exclaim, 

"  Let  Ephraim  alone — he  is  joined  to  his  idols." 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Upon  what  principle  are  verbs  subdivided  into  mono,  duo, 

,  and  ambi  ? 


CLASSIOLOGY.  227 

2.  What  is  a  verb  ? 

3.  What  is  a  mono  verb  ? 

4.  What  is  a  duo  verb  ? 

5.  What  is  a  uni  verb  ? 

6.  What  is  an  ambi  verb  ? 

7.  Is  the  uni  verb  confined  to  the  demimono  ? 

8.  Is  the  ambi  verb  ever  found  in  the  ne-demimono  ? 

9.  What  are  verbs  which  are  always  inceptive  f 

10.  What  is  every  inceptive  verb? 

11.  What  is  every  medial  verb  ? 

12.  What  verbs  are  the  only  ones  which  can  be  duo  ? 

13.  What  is  &  final  verb  ? 

14.  What  is  a  solo  verb?  * 

15.  If  the  mono  has  two  nouns,  or  what  is  equal  to  two  nouns, 
what  is  the  final  or  the  solo  verb  ? 

16.  How  many  verbs  can  a  demimono  contain  ? 

17.  What  js  said  of  have  as  a  medial  verb  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  have  as  an  inceptive  verb  in  the  demimono? 

19.  Can  there  be  more  nouns  than  one  in  the  demimono  ?  [No.] 

20.  Does  the  demimono  ever  contain  a  cordictive  noun.   [Never.] 

21.  What  verb  is  fly  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

John  made  the  bird  to  fly. 

22.  Why  \sfly  a  uni  verb  ? 

23.  What  is  fly  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

The  bird  attempted  to  fly. 

[Here  fly  has  a  sense  relation  with  bird  only ;  and,  as  bird  is 
here  a  cordictive  noun,  fly  is  a  mono  verb.] 

24.  Does  a  mono  verb  ever  fall  into  the  demimono?     [Yes.] 

25.  Does  a  duo  verb  ever  fall  into  the  demimono? 

[In  the  following  sentence,  the  duo  verb  is  in  the  demimono : — 

James  is  to  write  the  letter. 

[Here,  write  is  connected  with  James,  the  cordictive  noun, 
and  with  letter,  the  uncordictive.] 

26.  Does  the  uni  verb  ever  fall  into  the  ne-demimono?     [No.] 

27.  Does  the  ambi  verb  ever  fall  into  the  ne-demimono?    [No.] 

28.  What  is  a  demimono?     [Book  I.  page  33.] 

29.  What  is  a  ne-demimono  ?     [Book  I.  page  33.] 

30.  What  is  the  first  word  in  a  demimono  ?     [Book  I.  page  34.] 

31.  Where  unto  cannot  be  substituted  for  to,  what  is  the  assem- 
blage of  words,  which  begins  with  to?     [Book  I.  page  34.] 

32.  Against  what  is  to  used  ?     [Book  I.  page  33.] 

33.  What  verb  is  laugh  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

John  was  heard  to  laugh  heartily. 

34.  Where  is  to  employed  to  prevent  a  command,  or  a  petition  9 
[Book  I.  page  33.] 


228  CLASSIOLOGY. 


SPECIMEN. 

1.  Esau  sold  his  birth  right  to  procure  pottage. 

Esau  is  a  cordictive  noun. 

sold  is  a  solo  duo  verb. 

his  is  a  suffix  adjective,  from  he. 

birth  is  an  application  adjective. 

right  is  an  uncordictive  noun. 

to  is  an  adverb.     [See  page  216.] 

procure  is  a  solo  duo  verb,  having  a  sense  relation  with  Esau, 

and  pottage, 

pottage  is  an  uncordictive  noun. 


2.  Moses  did  smite  the  rock. 

Moses  is  a  cordictive  noun. 

did  is  an  inceptive  mono  verb. 

smite  is  a  final  duo  verb. 

ZAe  is  an  adjective. 

rock  is  an  uncordictive  noun. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  Potiphar  did  persecute  Joseph. 

2.  Israel  worshipped  the  golden  calf. 

3.  Moses  destroyed  the  calf. 

4.  Eleazar  was  consecrated. 

5.  Jericho  did  fall. 

6.  The  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan. 

7.  The  Jordan  was  crossed. 

8.  Moses  served  Jethro. 

9.  Jacob's  remains  were  transported. 

10.  Moses  did  send  spies. 

11.  Joshua  stopped  the  sun. 

12.  The  moon  was  stopped  too. 

13.  Eglon  did  oppress  Israel. 

14.  The  ark  had  been  taken  away. 

15.  Jabin  did  oppress  Israel. 

16.  The  Levites  exterminated  the  Benjamites. 

17.  Gideon  routed  the  Midianites. 

18.  Ruth  must  have  followed  Naomi. 

19.  Gideon  was  chosen  to  rescue  Israel 


MUTOLOGY.  229 

20.  Cicero  was  banished. 

21.  Sylla  did  plunder  Athens. 

22.  Jacob  fled  to  escape  Esau. 

23.  Socrates  was  doomed  to  die. 

24.  Rome  was  to  be  destroyed. 

25.  Sodom  was  to  be  destroyed. 

26.  God  intended  to  destroy  Gomorrah. 

27.  Who  saw  Memnon  invent  letters  ? 

28.  Did  you  see  Samson  kill  Philistines  ? 

29.  Rome  bade  Coriolanus  to  leave  Rome. 

30.  Athens  commanded  Aristides  to  leave  Athens. 

31.  Cyrus  intended  to  take  Babylon. 

32.  Alexander  captured  Tyre. 

33.  Enoch  was  translated  to  prevent  his  death. 

34.  Noah  prepared  to  meet  the  flood. 


LESSON  XXIV. 
MUTOLOGY. 


Mutology  is  the  eighth  part  of  Etymology,  and  re- 
spects the  variation  of  words  from  one  form  to  another,  the 
translation  of  words  from  one  class  to  another,  and  the 
cJtange  of  words  from  one  sense  to  another  by  means  of  dif- 
ferent forms. 


HOW  WORDS   ARE  RENDERED   NOUNS. 

1.  Words  are  rendered  nouns  by  their  nature;  as,  Moses} 
rockf  rod. 

2.  Words  are  rendered  nouns  by  their  application;  as, 
All  that  relates  to  man,  is  matter  of  progression.     [All.*] 

3.  Words  are  rendered  nouns  by  their  accent ;  as  reb'-el, 
con'-vict. 

4.  Words  are  rendered  nouns  by  some  new  form ;  as, 
dote,  dotage;  free,  freedom;  good,  goodness. 

*  AUa  naturally  an  adjective. 
20 


230 


MUTOLOGY. 


Verbs  rendered  Nouns. 

1.  Many  verbs  arc  rendered   nouns   by    the    following 
noun  makers: 


Voun  makers. 

Verbs. 

Nouns. 

age              .          .         .         dote 

dotage 

ance 

repent 

repentance 

ancy 

occupy 

occupancy 

ence 

depend 

dependence 

ency 

depend 

dependency 

ant 

defend 

defendant 

ent 

preside 

president 

ment 

manage 

management 

ure 

expose 

exposure 

ation 

simplify 

simplification 

ion 

depress 

depression 

ition 

add 

add-on 

sion 

admit 

admission 

Hon 

produce 

production 

er 

make 

maker 

or 

create 

creator 

ce 

defend 

defence 

se 

expend 

expanse 

ship 

court 

courtship 

ing 

begin 

beginning 

red 

hate 

hatred 

ture 

mix 

mixture 

th 

grow 

grow^A 

ist                 ...          copy 

copyis* 

2.  Some  verbs  are  rendered  nouns  by  accent  merely ;  a 

Verbs. 

Nouns. 

con-vict' 

con'vict 

pre-sentr 

pres/ent 

re-be 

1' 

reb'el 

Adjectives  rendered  Nouns. 

Many  adjectives  are   rendered  nouns   by  the  following 
noun  makers. 

Noun  makers, 
dom 
hood 
nets 


Adjectives. 

Nouns. 

free 

freedom 

false 

falsehood 

good 

goodness 

Noun  makers. 

N 

OTOLOGY. 

Adjectives. 

Nouns. 

ity                ...          real 

reah'fy 

*y 

real 

realty 

ship 

hard 

hardsAtjp 

ee 

fragrant 

fragrance 

ey 

fluent 

fluency 

t 

high 

heigh* 

th 

strong 

strengM 

ard 

drunk 

drunkard 

ist 

universal 

universalis* 

231 


The  sense  of  Nouns,  modified  by  different  forms. 


Noun  modifiers.  Examples  of  Illustration, 

ade 

ale 

dom 

head 

hood 

rick 

ship 

wick 

tan 

y 

ery 

ler 

erel 

kin 

let 

ling 

ock 

ist 

holi 

fore 

man 

states 

trades 

The  pupil  may  acquire  the  import  of  every  prefix,  and  affix 
which  modify  the  sense  of  words  by  ascertaining  the  meaning 
of  the  words  without  these  modifiers,  and  the  meaning  of  the 
words  with  the  modifiers.     Lemon,  lemonade. 


lemon 

lemonade 

parent 

parentage 

tetrarch 

tetrarchate 

king 

kingdom 

God 

GodAcad 

priest 

priestAood 

bishop 

bishopry 

friend 

friendship 

bail 

hoXWwick 

music 

musictafi 

cutler 

cutlery 

smith 

smithery  , 

jewel 

je  welter 

cock 

cockerel 

lamb 

1  lamb&m 

river 

rivute* 

duck 

duckling 

hill 

hillock 

machine 

machinist 

day 

Aoftday 

runner 

forerunner 

slaughter 

raanslaught  ; 

man 

statesman 

man 

tradesman 

REMARKS. 


The  following  noun  modifiers  are  generally  incorporated  with 
nouns — some,  however,  may  be  affixed  to  adjectives.  But  whether 


232  MUTOLOGY. 

affixed  to  adjectives,  or  to  nouns,  they  are  employed  to  change 
the  application  of  the  word  from  the  thing  which  pertains  to  the 
person,  to  the  person  himself :  ard,  ee,  er,  ian,  ist,  or,  man. 

Drunk,  drunkard;  Drunkenness,  drunkard. 

Bail,  bailee. 

Teach,  teacher. 

Physic,  physician. 

Botany,  botaxml. 

Act,  actor;  Create,  creator. 

Trade,  tradesman. 

The  following  noun  modifiers  are  incorporated  with  nouns  to 
throw  them  from  the  person,  to  something  which  pertains  to  him : 
age,  ate,  dize,  dom,  hood,  rick,  ry,  ship,  wick,  y. 

Patron,  patronage. 
Tetrarch,  tetrarchofe. 
Merchant,  merchandise. 
King,  kingdom. 
Priest,  priesthood. 
Bishop,  bishopric^. 
Smith,  smitkery. 
Slave,  slavery.  m 

Steward,  stewardship. 
Bailiff,  hdMiwiek. 
Cutler,  cutlery. 
Grocer,  grocery. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  mutology.     \Muto,  to  change.] 

2.  In  how  many  ways  are  words  rendered  nouns? 

3.  Are  words  ever  rendered  nouns  by  certain  forms  ? 

4.  Can  you  give  three  words  which  are  rendered  nouns  by 
their  forms  ? 

5.  Can  you  repeat  all  the  noun  makers  which  are  affixed  to 
verbs,  to  render  verbs  nouns  ? 

6.  What  is  dote? 

7.  What  is  dotage  ? 

8.  What  is  depend? 

9.  Into  what  does  ency  change  depend? 

10.  What  is  said  of  all  in  the  foot  note  ? 

11.  Are  there  any  verbs  which  are  rendered  nouns  by  mere 
accent  ?     [Give  some  instances.] 


MUTOLOOY.  233 

12.    From  what  English  word  is  copyist  derived? 
IS,  From  what  verb  is  the  noun,  growth,  made  ? 

14.  Is  the  word,  copy,  a  verb? 

15.  Can  the  verb,  copy,  be  rendered  a  noun,? 

1 G.  By  what  means  can  you  give  the  verb,  copy,  the  noun  charac- 
ter? [By  application;  as,  He  wants  a  copy  of  "The  Fibst  Round 
in  the  Ladder  of  Education." 

17.  What  is  convict  in  the  following  sentence? — 

The  jury  will  convict  him ;  and  he  will  then  be  a  convict. 

18.  By  what  affix  is  free  rendered  a  noun? 

19.  What  is  free? 

20.  By  what  affix  is  the  adjective,  hard,  rendered  a  noun? 

21.  What  is  the  meaning  of  ade,  age,  ate,  dom,  head,  hood,  rick, 
ship,  wick,  ian,  y,  ery,  ler,  erel,  kin,  let,  ling,  ock,  ist,  holi,  fore,  man, 
states,  trades? 

22.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word,  lemon  f 

23.  What  is  the  meaning  of  lemonarfe  ? 

24.  What  is  the  import  of  the  affix,  ade,  in  lemonade  f 

25.  What  is  the  meaning  of  age,  in  parentage. 

26.  In  what  particular,  do  the  words,  parent,  and  parentage,  differ 
in  meaning  ? 

27    What  is  the  effect  of  the  affix,  y,  in  cutlery  f 

28.  What  is  the  meaning  of  kin,  in  lambkin  ? 

29.  What  is  the  import  of  the  affix,  ling,  in  duckling  f 

30.  What  effect  is  produced  by  the  prefix,  states,  in  statesman  ? 

[The  teacher  should  drill  the  pupils  in  this  way  till  they  can 
give  the  meaning  of  the  various  sense  modifiers  which  are  used  in 
this  Lesson.] 


LESSON  XXV. 
ADVERBS   RENDERED   VERBS. 

Some  adverbs  are  rendered  verbs  by  application,  without 
any  change  of  form ;  as, 

1.  He  went  forward ;  They  forward  goods. 

2.  Take  off  your  hat ;    Off  with  his  head. 

3.  Get  «p;  Up1  let  us  be  off. 

20* 


234 


MUTOLOGY. 


Some  words  are  rendered  verbs  by  incorporating  the  fol- 
lowing prefix  verb  makers : 

Verb  maker.  Examples  of  Ulustration. 

en                 .          .          .  dear                     endear 

in                 ...  form                     wform 

trans            .          .          .  late                       translate 

re                 ...  mind                    remind 


SENSE   MODIFICATIONS. 


Sense  modification  in  verbs  is  a  change  which  is  produced 
in  the  sense  of  the  verbs  by  incorporating  the  following 
syllables,  with  verbs : 


Verb  modifiers. 
a 
be 
dis 
for 
fore 
mis 
over 
out 
re 
un 

under 
up 
with 


Examples  of  Illustration. 


VOW 

avow 

spread 

oespread 

like 

dislike 

bear 

forbear 

tell 

foretell 

give 

wmgive 

see 

oversee 

live 

outli\e 

call 

recall 

do 

undo 

went 

underwent 

set 

upset 

stand 

withstand 

Certain  branch  words  are  rendered  Prepositions,  how. 

1.  Certain  branch  words  are  rendered  prepositions  by  the 
nature  of  the  word ;  as,  of,  to,  in,  on. 

2.  By  application  in  forming  a  mono;  as,  All  went  but 
him;  All  went  past  the  house;  All  came  except  John. 


Words  are  rendered  Adjectives,  how. 

1.  Certain  nouns  are  rendered  adjectives  by  dropping  the 
noun  affix;  as,  Freedom,  free;  Blackness,  black;  Rectom^ 
red;  Accuracy,  accurate. 

2.  Certain  nouns,  certain  pronouns,  certain  prepositions, 
certain  adverbs,  and  certain  verbs  in  the  tcnscless  Br,  and  in 


MUTOLOOV. 


235 


the  tciwtc8S  Have  and  Be  form,  are  rendered  adjectives  by 
application  ;  as,  Leather  shoe,  Brewster  Jones,  Hat  case, 
&he  bear,  Under  officers,  The  above  facts,  The  then  bailiff, 
Writing  table,  Written  letters. 

3.  Certain  nouns  are  rendered  adjectives  by  particular 
suffixes;  as,  Mode,  modal;  Irony,  ironical;  Adamant,  ada- 
mant ine;  John,  John's;  Bliss,  Bliss' ;  Holiness,  holiness' ; 
He,  his  ;  Me,  my,  mine;  You,  your,  your*. 

4.  Certain  branch  words  are  rendered  adjectives  by  their 
nature;  as,  The  book,  Any  person,  Every  man,  Each  girl, 
All  children.     [These  are  absolute  adjectives.] 


Adjective  makers, 
id 
ical 
ine 
ous 
eons 
ious 
V 

iy 

ish 

Jul 

ie 

tie 

able 

ible 

an 

en 

ed 

tome 

eat 

less 

's 


Adjective  makers, 
y,  ine 
y,  ine 
o,  rs 
is 
s 
s 

tr,  irs 
se,  sesoever 


' 


Nouns. 

Adjectives. 

mode 

modal 

irony 

ironical 

adamant 

adamantine 

mountain 

mountainous 

right 

righteous 

space 

spacious 

bone 

bony 

man 

man/y 

slave 

slavisA 

skill 

skil/W 

hero 

heroic 

infant 

infants 

reason 

reasonaWe 

convert 

converts 

Rome 

Roman 

brass 

brazen 

saint 

sainted* 

burden 

burdensome 

Portugal 

Portuguese 

sun 

Buuless 

lady 

lady's 

ladies 

ladies' 

Pronouns. 

Adjective!. 

me 

my,  mine 

thou 

thy,  thine 

us 

our,  ours 

he 

his 

her 

hers 

it 

its 

they 

their,  theirs 

who 

whose,  whosesoever 

It  will  be  fulmitted  by  all  who  examine  the  subject  thoroughly, 


236  MUTOLOOY. 

that  their,  and  theirs  are  adjectives.     [See  the  Exegesis,  on  these 
words.] 


SENSE    MODIFICATION   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

The  sense  modification  of  an  adjective,  is  a  change  pro- 
duced in  the  meaning  of  the  word  by  incorporating  some 
additional  syllable. 


jective  modifiers. 

Examples  of 

Illustration. 

ish 

red 

reddish 

dis 

honourable 

dishonourable 

in 

sensible 

insensible 

un 

deniable 

undeniable 

ne                 .          . 

genedictive 

negenedictive 

Words  are  rendered  Conjunctions,  how. 

1.  Certain  branch  words  are  rendered  conjunctions  by  the 
nature  of  the  word;  as,  because,  notwithstanding,  there/ore, 
than,  nathless,  and,  or. 

2.  Certain  branch  words  are  rendered  conjunctions  by 
application  of  the  word  to  a  cordictive  mono ;  as,  I  cannot 
return  except  he  sends  his  servant ;  I  shall  go  provided  it 
does  not  rain ;  It  is  a  fine  day- — hence  we  must  go  there. 

Words  are  rendered  Adverbs,  how. 
Words  are  rendered  adverbs  in  three  ways  : — 

1.  By  the  nature  of  the  word ;  as,  too,  indeed. 

2.  By  the  application  of  the  word  in  forming  a  mono ; 
as,  Henry  behaves  very  iU ;  He  is  spoken  of. 

3.  By  some  change  in  the  form  of  the  word ;  as,  Accu- 
rate, accurate^;  Just,  justly  Way,  away;  Head,  ahead. 

I.  Some  adjectives  are  rendered  adverbs  by  ly  ;  as, 

Adverb  makers.  Examples  of  Illustration. 

ly             .  .           .  virtuous             virtuous/y 

ly             .  .           .  brave                 braved/ 

ly            .  .  second               second/y 


cLASsioLoay.  237 

II.  Some  nouns,  some  verbs,  and  some  adjectives  are  ren- 
dered adverbs  by  incorporating  a  as  a  prefix ;  as, 


Adverb  makers. 

Examples  of  Illustration. 

noun          a,  ly  . 

side,  aside,  man,  manly 

verb            a 

go>  «go,  miss,  amiss 

adjective     a 

right,  aright,  wry,  awry 

III.  Many  words  are  rendered  adverbs  by  their  nature; 
as,  here,  there,  where,  &c. 

These  are  rarely  removed  from  the  adverb  denomination, 
their  native  place,  except  when  they  are  spoken  of,  when 
they  are  thrown  into  the  noun  denomination ;  as,  here  is  an 
adverb. 

[The  teacher  should  put  many  questions  to  the  pupil,  on  this 
Lesson,  which  he  must  construct  without  any  aid  from  the  author.  ] 


LESSON  XXVL 
I.  Nomination. 


In  grammar,  nomination  is  the  process  of  naming  words 
as  individuals. 

[They  who  wish  to  learn  upon  what  ground  I  reject  the  word, 
parsing,  are  referred  to  the  Appeal.] 


II.  Appropriation. 

In  grammar,  appropriation  is  the  process  of  assigning 
words  to  their  respective  denominations,  and  ectological  pro- 
perties to  their  respective  words. 

III.    CONSTRUING. 

Construing  is  the  process  of  arranging  words  in  a  natu- 
ral order,  of  naming  them  as  individuals,  of  giving  their 
etiological  properties,  and  their  context  significations. 


238 


CLASSTOLOGY. 


1.    SPECIMEN   OP   NOMINATION. 


[The  power  (of  speech)  is]  (a  faculty)  (  ,  ,  peculiar) 
(to  man ;)  (and  ,  was  bestowed)  (on  him)  (by  his  benefi- 
cent Creator)  (for  the  greatest  ,  ;)  (and  ,  ,  ,  ) 
(  ,  ,  most  excellent  uses ;)  (but  (alas !)  how  often  do 
we  pervert  it)  (to  the  worst     ,     )  (of  purposes.) 

[The  is  an  adjective. 

power  is  a  noun. 

(of  is  a  preposition. 

speech)  is  a  noun. 

is]  is  a  verb. 

(a       J 

faculty) 

{which 

is 

peculiar) 

(to 
man  ;) 

(and 
it 

was 
bestowed) 

(on 
him) 


{by 

his 


beneficent 
Creator) 

(for 
the 

greatest 
uses ;) 

(and 
it 

was 
bestowed) 

(for 
the 
most 
excellent 
uses ;) 


is  an  adjective, 
is  a  noun. 

understood,  is  a  pronoun, 
understood,  is  a  verb, 
is  an  adjective. 

is  a  preposition, 
is  a  noun. 

is  a  conjunction, 
understood,  is  a  pronoun, 
is  a  verb, 
is  a  verb. 

is  a  preposition, 
is  a  pronoun. 

is  a  preposition, 
is  an  adjective, 
is  an  adjective, 
is  a  noun. 

is  a  preposition, 
is  an  adjective, 
is  an  adjective, 
understood,  is  a  noun. 

is  a  conjunction, 
understood,  is  a  pronoun, 
understood,  is  a  verb, 
understood,  is  a  verb. 

understood,  is  a  preposition, 
understood,  is  an  adjective, 
is  a  subadjective. 
is  an  adjective, 
is  a  noun. 


CLASSIOLOGY. 

(but 

is  a  conjunction. 

(alas!) 

is  an  interjection. 

how 
often 
do 

is  a  subadverb. 
is  an  adverb, 
is  a  verb. 

we 
pervert 

«0 

is  a  pronoun, 
is  a  verb, 
is  a  pronoun. 

(to 
the 
worst 
purpose) 

is  a  preposition, 
is  an  adjective, 
is  an  adjective, 
understood,  is  a  noun. 

(of 
purposes.) 

is  a  preposition, 
is  a  noun. 

REMARKS. 

239 


Nomination  is  intended  for  the  mere  beginner.  It  is  a  brief, 
simple  process,  in  which  the  mere  tyro  in  analysis,  may  be  drilled 
to  advantage. 


The  different  ways  in  which  the  word,  Nomination,  may  be 
used  in  teaching. 

1.  Teacher. — "  What  word  is  in  nomination  t" 

2.  Pupil.— "  Books." 

3.  Teacher.—"  Who  is  the  nominator?" 

4.  Fupil.—"  John  Howe." 

5.  Teacher. — "  Has  not  books  been  nominated  already  ?"     "r 

6.  Pupil. — "No,  sir ;   new  is  the  only  word  which  has  been 
in  nomination." 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [I  am]  (the  man)  (who  commands  them.) 

2.  [It  is  not]  (I)  (who  command  the  men.) 

3.  [Who  opposed  the  motion]  (which  James  made  ?) 

TFor  more  Exercises  in  Nomination,  take  pages  125,  126,  127, 
181,  and  182,  Book  II.  And  should  more  be  deemed  necessary, 
take  Book  L,  pages  29,  30,  81,  51,  62,  63,  90,  141,  216,  &c] 


240  CLASSIOLOGY. 

WORDS   OF   DIFFERENT   DENOMINATIONS   MAY   ENTER 
INTO   THE   SAME   MONO. 

John,  of  what  materials  is  a  shoe  made  ? 

A  shoe  is  made  of  leather,  or  doth,  and  thread. 

John,  every  thing  which  is  made,  is  formed  ont  of  certain 
materials.    Bread  is  made  out  of  flour,  salt,  water,  and  yeast. 

Now,  as  a  shoe  is  constructed  out  of  certain  fixed  mate- 
rials, so  is  a  mono  formed  out  of  particular  kinds  of  words. 
Monos  are  divided  into 

1.  Trones,  and 

2.  Clods.     [Book  I.  p.  54.] 

And  clads  are  subdivided  into 

1.  Cordictive,  and 

2.  Uncordictive.* 

The  uncordictive  clad  may  be  composed  of  one  noun,  one 
pronoun,  one  preposition,  one,  or  more  adjectives,  one,  or 
more  subadjectives,  and  one  interjection. 

In  constructing,  then,  an  uncordictive  clad,  a  preposition, 
an  adjective,  a  subadjective,  and  a  noun,  or  a  pronoun,  may  be 
employed.  Words  of  these  seven  denominations  may  enter 
into  an  uncordictive  clad  :  no  others  can.  But,  although 
words  from  these  seven  denominations  may  be  used  in  form- 
ing an  uncordictive  clad,  yet  an  uncordictive  clad  may  be 
formed  out  of  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  or  an  interjection  only ; 
as,  (Sarah,)  come  thou  to  me;  It  is  (she,)  (alas!) 

And  there  are  thousands  of  uncordictive  clads  which  are 
made  of  a  preposition  and  a  noun,  or  of  a  preposition  and 
a  pronoun;  as,  With  books;  Of  me;  To  him. 

You  see,  then,  that  an  uncordictive  clad  may  be  constructed 
wholly  out  of  one  kind  of  material,  wholly  out  of  two,  or  wholly 
out  of  three,  and  that  it  never  can  comprise  more  than  four 
kinds  of  materials. 

The  Construction  of  an  Uncordictive  Clad. 

1.  If  a  preposition  is  used,  it  should  commence  the  mono ; 
as,  Of  John's  brother's  new  book.     . 

*  Or  intojw-e-clads,  and  we-^o-e-clads.    [See  Exegesis.] 


CLASSIOLOGY.  241 

2.  If  a  subadjective  is  employed,  it  should  be  placed  im- 
mediately before  its  super;  as,  Of  John's  brotner's  new 
book. 

8.  If  adjectives  are  used,  they  should  be  placed  between 
the  preposition,  and  the  noun,  or  pronoun,  and  between  the 
subadjective,  and  the  noun,  or  pronoun;  as,  Of  John's 
brother's  neio  book. 

4.  In  general,  the  noun,  or  pronoun  should  be  placed 
last;  as,  Of  John's  brother's  new  book. 

N.  B.  No  verb,  no  adverb,  no  subadverb,  and  no  conjunction 
can  enter  into  an  uncordictive  clad. 

Note  I. — The  verb  in  the  demimono  may  become  the  uncordictive 
noun  of  the  preposition,  for ;  as,  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see. 
[For  to  see  what  thing  went  ye  out  ?] 

Note  II. — The  interjection  always  constitutes  an  uncordictive 
dad;  as,  ("Alas!)  for  it  was  borrowed." 

Note  III. — An  uncordictive  clad  is  rarely  broken :  the  integrity 
of  an  uncordictive  clad  is  generally  perfect ;  as,  Of  John's  brother's 
new  book. 

Note  IV. — An  uncordictive  clad  rarely  has  the  plus  idios. 


CORDICTIVE  CLAD. 

The  fewest  kind  of  materials  of  which  a  cordictive  clad 
may  be  made,  are  two ;  viz.,  a  verb,  and  a  cordictive  noun, 
or  pronoun  ;  as,  John  went  when  (James  returned.) 

The  greatest  number  of  kinds  of  materials  which  can 
enter  into  a  cordictive  clad,  is  seven;  viz.,  conjunction,  ad- 
verb, subadverb,  adjective,  subadjective,  a  cordictive  noun,  or 
pronoun,  and  an  uncordictive  noun,  or  pronoun. 


OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  notation  of  the  cordictive  clad  is  often  implenary. 
This  arises  from  a  frequent  omission  of  the  cordictive  noun, 
or  pronoun,  of  the  verb,  and  frequently  from  an  omission  of 
the  uncordictive  noun,  or  pronoun.  If  any  one  of  these 
parts  is  omitted,  the  notation  of  the  clad  is  implenary ;  as, 
["  There  was  a  man]  (         ,        *,         sent)  (from  God.") 

2.  The  omission  of  a  conjunction)  a  subadjective,  a  subad- 
21 


242  CLASSIOLOGY. 

verb j  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  is  rare.  But  even  where 
the  omission  of  one,  or  more  of  these  parts,  happens,  the  omis- 
sion does  not,  strictly  speaking,  render  the  notation  of  the 
mono  imphnary. 


THE   TRONE. 

The  trone,  like  the  cordictive  clad,  may  be  wholly  com- 
posed of  two  kinds  of  words;  and,  like  this  clad,  it  may 
comprise  as  many  as  seven. 

1.  The  hinds  of  materials  out  of  which  trones  may  be  con- 
structed. 

1.  Conjunctions, 

2.  Verbs, 

3.  Adverbs, 

4.  Subadverbs, 

5.  Adjectives, 

6.  JSubadjectives, 

7.  Nouns,  and  Pronouns. 

2.  The  fewest  number  of  these  seven  kinds,  two,  viz. 

1.  A  Cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun,  and 

2.  A  Verb. 


II.  The  hinds  of  materials  out  of  which  a  cordictive  clad 
may  be  formed. 

1.  Conjunctions, 

2.  Verbs, 

3.  Adverbs, 

4.  Subadverbs, 

5.  Adjectives, 

6.  Subadjectives, 

7.  Nouns,  and  Pronouns. 

Fewest  number  of  these  hinds,  two,  viz. 

1.  Cordictive  nouns,  or  pronouns 

2.  Verbs. 


CLASSIOtf>QYt  243 

III.  The  kinds  of  materials  out  of  which  the  vneordictive 
clad  may  he  formed. 

1.  Prepositions, 

2.  Adjectives, 

3.  Subadjectives, 

4.  Vneordictive  nouns,  pronouns,  and  interjections. 

Fewest  hinds,  one,  viz.,  interjection,  uncordictive  noun,  or 
pronoun. 

[The  pupil  should  be  questioned  on  this  Lesson  with  great  care,] 


REMARKS. 

He  that  can  divide  a  sentence  into  monos,  subdivide  the  monos 
into  trone,  cordictive  clads,  and  uncordictive  clads,  render  all  the 
implenary  monos,  plenary  ones,  and  give  the  different  sorts  of  verbal 
materials  of  which  each  kind  of  mono  may  be  formed,  has  nearly 
accomplished  the  task  of  learning  English  grammar.  But,  he  that 
has  not  acquired  this  capacity,  must  acquire  it,  or  remain  ignorant 
of  this  science.  If  any  one  presumes  that  a  mere  capacity  to 
analyze  words  as  nouns  and  verbs,  pronouns  and  prepositkms,  adjec- 
tints,  conjunctions,  and  adverbs,  constitutes  him  a  grammarian,  I  can 
inform  him  that  his  presumption  is  fallacious.  Nothing  but  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  Book  L  will  enable  a  person  to  lfcarn 
grammar. 

Note. — In  the  following  specimens  given  of  Nomination,  Appro- 
priation, and  Construing,  I  have  purposely  omitted  the  giving  of 
the  distinctive  character  of  each  mono.  And  the  teacher  should 
require  his  pupils  to  read  every  mono,  and  supply  this  omission. 

.(Immediately  after  reading  the  mono,  tell  whether  it  is  a  trone, 
jx  cordictive,  or  an  uncordictive  clad.) 


SPECIMEN. 

£The  power  (of  speech)  is]  (a  faculty.) 

[  The  power  is]  is  the  t rone. 

(a  faculty)         is  an  uncordictive  clad. 

Every  jgentenee  which  is  found  in  the  specimens  of  Nomination, 
Ac,  should  be  monoized  in  this  way  before  any  thing  is  done  with 
the  Exercises. 


244 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


II,  Appropriation. 

In  grammar,  appropriation  is  the  process  of  assigning 
words  to  their  respective  denominations }  and  etiological  pro- 
perties to  their  respective  words. 


SPECIMEN. 


[Absalom  made  Amasa]  ( 
(instead  of  Joab.) 


captain)  (of  the  host) 


Amasa 


into 

the 
captain 


1.   [Absalom  made  Amasa"] 

Absalom  is  a  cordictive  trunk  word  of  the  noun  denomination, 

individual  application,  panta-theme  reladiction, 
masculin  genediction,  and  uni  numerdiction, 
plused  by  s. 

made  is  a  duo,  branch  word  of  the  verb  denomination, 

irregular  passed  tense  form,  passed  tense,  exerting 
its  cordictive  power  in  aiding  Absalom  to  form 
the  cordiction  of  the  mono,  and  gnomefying  with 
Absalom,  and  Amasa. 

[To  gnomefy  with,  is  not  only  to  make  sense 
with,  but  to  depend  upon.] 
Is  an  uncordictive  trunk  word  of  the  noun  denomi- 
nation, individual  application,  panta-theme  rela- 
diction, masculin  genediction,  and  uni  numerdic- 
tion, plused  by  s. 

2.  (into  the  captain?) 

understood,  is  an  uncordictive  branch  word  of  the 
preposition  denomination,  gnomefying  with  cap- 
tain. 

understood,  is  an  uncordictive  branch  word  of  the 
adjective  denomination,  gnomefying  with  captain. 

is  an  uncordictive  trunk  word  of  the  noun  denomi- 
nation, class  application,  panta-theme  reladiction, 
ne-o  genediction,  and  uni  numerdiction,  plused 
by  s. 

3.  (of  the  host) 

of  is  an  uncordictive  branch  word  of  the  preposition  de- 

nomination, gnomefying  with  host. 

the  is  an  uncordictive  branch  word  of  the  adjective  de- 

nomination, gnomefying  with  host. 


CLASSIOLOdY.  245 

host  is  an  uncordictive  trunk  word  of  the  noun  denorui- 

dation,  class  application,  panta-theme  reladiction, 
ne-o  genediction,  and  uni  nuinerdiction,  plused 
by  *.     [Hosts.] 

4.  (instead  of  Joab.) 

instead  of  is  an  uncordictive  branch  word  of  the  preposition 
denomination,  gnomefying  with  Joab. 

Joab  is  an  uncordictive  trunk  word  of  the  noun  denomina- 

tion, individual  application,  panta-theme  reladic- 
tion, masculin  genediction,  and  uni  numerdiction, 
plused  by  *. 

2.  [I  am]  (he.) 

1.  [lam] 

1  is  a  cordictive  trunk  word  of  the  pronoun  denomina- 

tion, exerting  its  cordictive  power  in  aiding  am 
to  form  the  cordiction  of  the  mono,  made  synony- 
mous with  the  word,  Brown,  by  application, 
par-e-theme  reladiction,  masculin  genediction,  and 
uni  numerdiction,  plused  by  we. 

am  is  a  mono  branch  word  of  the  verb  denomination,  of 

the  irregular  passed  tense  form,  present  tense,  exert- 
ing its  cordictive  power  in  aiding  7,  with  which  it 
gnomefies,  to  form  the  cordiction  of  the  mono. 

2.  (he.) 

he  is  a  cordictive  trunk  word  of  the  pronoun  denomina- 

tion, surrendering  its  cordictive  power,  made 
synonymous  with  the  word,  agent,  supposed,  or 
presumed,  panta-theme  reladiction,  masculin  gene- 
diction, and  uni  numerdiction,  plused  by  they.* 

*  That  he  has  cordictive  power,  is  obvious  from  the  consideration,  that  this  pro- 
noun generally  exerts  cordictive  power.  In  the  following,  he  aids  writes  in  form- 
ing the  affirmation,  the  cordiction  of  the  mono : 

He  writes  slowly,  and  exact. 

But,  where  he,  or  any  other  pronoun  whose  form  indicates  the  possession  of  cor- 
diclive  power,  falls  into  the  predicate  mono,  it  does  not  exert  this  power. 

All  the  pronouns  which  indicate  the  possession  of  cordictive  power  by  their  very 
farms,  may  be  found  in  this  mono.  [/,  we,  they,  &c]  But  the  pronouns  whose 
forms  indicate  a  want  of  the  cordictive  power,  never  fall  into  the  predicate  mono. 
[3f«,  us,  them,  Ac.] 

As  the  uncordictive  forms  can  never  be  used  unless  there  is  a  verb,  or  a  preposi- 
tion in  the  mono,  these  forms  are  not  found  in  the  predicate  mono. 

21* 


246  CLASSIOLOOY. 

3.  [We  are]  (the  boys.) 

1:.  [  We  are] 

We  is  a  cordictive  trunk  word  of  the  pronoun  denomina- 

tion, rendered  synonymous  with  our  names  by 
application,  par-e-theme  reladiction,  masculin 
genediction,  and  plus  numerdiction,  unified  by  I. 

are  is  a  mono,  branch  word  of  the  verb  denomination, 

irregular  passed  tense  form,  present  tense,  exert- 
ing its  cordictive  power  in  aiding  we,  with  which 
it  gnomefies,  to  form  the  cordiction  of  the  mono. 

2.  (the  boys.*) 

the  is  an  uncordictive  branch  word  of  the  adjective  de- 

nomination, gnomefying  with  boys.  • 

boys  i&  an  uncordictive  trunk  word  of  the  noun  denomina- 

tion, class  application,  panta-theme  reladiction, 
masculin  genediction,  and  plus  numerdiction, 
plused  by  s. 


III.  Construing. 

Construing  is  the  process  of  arranging  words  in  a  natu- 
ral order,  of  naming  them  as  individuals,  of  giving  their 
ectohgical  properties,  and  their  context  significations. 

SPECIMEN. 

1.  [Absalom  made  Amasa]  (  ,  ,  captain)  (of  the 
host)  (instead  of  Joab.) 

[Absalom  made  Amasa"] 

Absalom  is  a  cordictive  noun  which  aids  made  in  forming 

the  cordiction  of  the  mono,  and  signifies  here,  a 
man  who  had  more,  or  less  authority  over  the 
host,  of  the  individual  application,  panta-theme 
reladiction,  masculin  genediction,  and  uni  numer- 
diction, plused  by  s.     [The  two  Absaloms.] 

made  is  a  duo  verb  which  aids  Absalom  in  forming  the 

cordiction  of  the  mono,  signifies  here,  the  act  of 
constituting  Amasa  the  captain  of  the  host, 
of  the  irregular  passed  tense  form,  passed  tense, 
and  gnomefies  with  Absalom,  and  Amasa.  [Give 
the  triflection  of  made.~\ 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


247 


Amasa  is  an  uncordictive  noun  "which  signifies  here,  the 

person  whom  Absalom  made  the  captain  of  the 
host,  of  the  individual  application,  panta-theme 
reladiction,  masculin  genediction,  and  uni  numer- 
diction, plused  by  s.     [Three  Amasa*.] 


2-( 


captain) 


>         f 

into  understood,  is  a  preposition  which  expresses  here, 

where  the  captain  was  in  respect  to  Joab,  and 
gnomefies  with  the  noun,  captain.  » 

the  understood,  is  an  adjective  which  indicates  here, 

that  the  captain  meant,  is  distinguished  from 
all  other  captains  by  the  circumstance  that  he 
was  over  the  host.     [Page  93,  clause  12.] 

captain  is  an  uncordictive  noun  which  signifies  here,  a  chief 

military  officer,  of  the  class  application,  panta- 
theme  reladiction,  masculin  genediction,  and  uni 
numerdiction,  plused  by  «.     [Captain*.] 

[of  the  7iost) 

of  is  a  preposition  which  expresses  here,  that  the  host 

was  the  source  whence  the  captaincy  of  Amasa 
was  derived.     [Book  III.  page  180.] 

[He  that  desires  to  understand  of,  cannot  be 
gratified  unless  he  gives  close  attention  to 
its  curious,  though  interesting  character.] 

the  is  an  adjective  which  expresses  here,  that  the  host 

meant,  is  distinguished  from  all  other  hosts  by 
the  distinctive  implied  circumstance,  that  it 
was  composed  of  the  children  of  Israel.  [Page 
93,  clause  12.] 

host  is  an  uncordictive  noun  which  means  here,  an  army, 

or  a  great  number  of  men  assembled  for  war, 
of  the  class  application,  panta-theme  reladiction, 
ne-o  genediction,  and  uni  numerdiction,  plused 
by*.     [Host*.]* 


4.   (instead  of  Joab.) 

instead  of        is  a  preposition  which  expresses  here,  where  Amasa 
was  in  respect  to  Joab. 


*  The  hogt  was  very  likely  composed  entirely  of  men :  but  it  docs  not  follow 
because  a  pie  is  made  of  ox  beef,  that  it  is  amain  pie.  So  it  does  not  follow,  because 
a  host  is  made  of  men,  that  it  is  a  masculin  host  The  men  are  the  mere  materutli 
of  which  the  hogt  is  made. 


248  CLASSIOLOGY. 

[Amasa  was  in  the  place  of  Joab — in  stead 
of — in  the  place  of.] 

Joab  is  an  uncordictive  noun  which  means  here,  the  pre- 

decessor of  Amasa,  of  the  individual  application, 
panta-theme  reladiction,  masculin  genediction,  and 
uni  numerdiction,  plused  by  s.    [The  two  Joabs.  ] 


REMARKS. 

In  construing  the  preceding  sentence,  I  have  endeavoured 
to  notice  nothing  which  is  not  clearly  embraced  in  the  defi- 
nition of  construing  i 

"  Absalom  made  Amasa  captain  of  the  host  instead  of 
Joab/' 

Absalom,  a  cordictive  noun  which  aids  made  in  forming  the 
cordiction  of  the  sentence,  and  signifies  here,  a 
man  who  had  more,  or  less  authority  over  the 
host. 

The  following  part  of  the  analysis,  is  designed  to  give  the 
context  import  of  the  noun,  Absalom  : 

"And  signifies  here,  a  man  who  had  more,  or  less  authority 
over  the  host." 

This  fact  belongs  to  the  process  of  construing ,  for  it  is 
derived  from  the  context. 

"  But,"  says  the  pupil,  "  the  same  fact  may  be  derived 
from  history." 

If  it  is  derived  from  the  context,  it  falls  under  the  idea  of 
construing.  But,  if  it  is  derived  from  history  only,  it  is 
matter  of  which  construing  can  take  no  notice. 

Absalom,  a  cordictive  noun  which  aids  made  in  forming  the 

cordiction  of  the  sentence,  and,  as  here  used, 
means  a  man  who  was  a  son  of  David,  and  who 
had  more,  or  less  influence  over  the  host  of 
Israel. 

*  Who  was  a  son  of  David"  is  not  derived  from  the  con- 
text of  the  sentence  in  which  the  noun,  Absalom,  is  used — 
that  Absalom  was  a  son  of  David,  is  true.  But,  as  this  fact 
is  not  developed  in  the  assemblage  of  words  under  consider- 


CLASSIOLOGY.  24* 

ation,  construing  has  nothing  to  do  with  it.  Any  historical 
facte  which  are  developed  by  the  mere  context  of  a  sentence, 
are  legitimate  construing  matter. 

2.  The  kind  host  gave  us  his  personal  attention. 

Host,  a  cordictive  noun  which  aids  gave  in  forming  the 

cordiction  of  the  sentence,  and,  as  used  here, 
means  an  innkeeper. 

3.  The  landlord  called  his  host  to  see  me. 

Host,  an  uncordictive  noun  which,  as  here  used,  means 

one  who  is  entertained  at  the  house  of  another 
for  a  reward. 

4.  He  became  a  7wst  for  the  sins  of  man. 

Host,  an  uncordictive  noun  which,  as  here  used,  means  a 

victim,  or  sacrifice. 

5.  The  priest  shows  the  people  Christ  in  the  circular  host. 

Host,  an  uncordictive  noun  which,  as  here  used,  means 

the  consecrated  wafer  which-,  the  Catholics  say,  is 
the  real  body  of  Christ. 

G.  They  should  make  him  rise  early. 

should  is  an  inceptive,  mono  verb,  exerting  its  four  verb 

powers — its  cordictive  in  aiding  they  to  form  the 
cordiction  of  the  sentence ;  its  significant  in  ex- 
pressing duty;  its  ascribing  in  attributing  the 
duty  of  doing  the  act  expressed  by  make  to  them; 
and  its  time-expressing  power  in  marking  the 
present  tense,  gnomefying  with  they. 

make  is  a  final,  duo  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive,  its 

ascribing,  and  time-expressing  power ;  but  exert- 
ing its  significant  in  expressing  the  act  of  com- 
pelling him  to  rise  early,  gnomefying  with  they, 
and  him. 

7.  [Good  farmers  make  hay  while]  (the  sun  shines.) 

make  is  a  duo,  solo  verb,  exerting  its  four  verb  powers — 

its  cordictive  in  aiding  farmers  to  form  the  cor- 
diction of  the  mono ;  its  significant  in  expressing 
the  process  of  curing  hay ;  its  ascribing  in  attribut- 
ing the  act  of  curing  to  the  farmers ;  and  its  time- 
expressing  power  in  marking  the  time  of  this 
event,  gnomefying  with  farmers,  and  hay. 


KQ 


CLASSIOLOGY. 


8.  Absalom  made  Amasa.  captain.        , 

made  is  a  duo,  solo  verb,  exerting  its  four  verb  powers — 

its  cordictive  in  aiding  Absalom  to  form  the  cor- 
diction  of  the  mono  ;  its  significant  in  expressing 
the  act  of  constituting  Amasa  the  captain ;  its 
ascribing  in  attributing  the  making  of  Amasa 
into  the  captain  of  the  host  to  Absalom ;  and  its 
time-expressing  power  in  marking  the  passed  tense, 
gnomefying  with  Absalom,  and  Amasa. 

9.  They  will  have  been  made  good,  &c. 

will  is  an  inceptive,  mono  verb,  exerting  three  of  the 

verb  powers  only — its  cordictive  in  aiding  they  to 
form  the  cordiction  of  the  mono ;  its  significant 
in  expressing  the  prediction  that  the  act  of  mak- 
ing them  good,  will  happen ;  and  its  time-express- 
ing power  in  marking  the  future  tense,  gnomefy- 
ing with  they. 

have  is  a  medial,  mono  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive, 

its  significant,  and  its  ascribing  power ;  but  ex- 
erting its  time-expressing  power  in  suggesting  the 
fact  that  the  future  time  marked  by  will,  will 
have  passed  off  before  another  future  time, 
which  is  implied  from  the  nature  of  the  case. 

been  is  a  medial,  mono  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive, 

its  significant,  and  its  time-expressing  power ;  but 
exerting  its  ascribing  power  in  attributing  the 
act  of  being  made  good  to  them. 

made  is  a  final,  mono  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive,  its 

ascribing,  and  its  time-expressing  power ;  but  ex- 
erting its  significant  power  in  expressing  the  pro- 
cess of  producing  a  moral  reformation  in  them. 


10.  They  slwuld  extend  these  lines. 

should  is  an  inceptive,  mono  verb,  exerting  its  four  verb 

powers — its  cordictive  in  aiding  they  to  form  the 
cordiction  of  the  mono ;  its  significant  in  express- 
ing the  duty  of  them  to  extend  these  lines ;  its 
ascribing  in  attributing  this  duty  to  them  ;  and 
its  time-expressing  power  in  marking  the  present 
tense,  gnomefying  with  they. 

extend  is  a  final,  duo  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive,  its 

ascribing,  and  its  time-expressing  power  ;  but  ex- 
erting its  significant  power  in  expressing  the  act 
N  of  continuing  the  lines,  gnomefying  with  they, 

'    ,  and  lines. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  251 

11.  If  these  men  were  under  me,  they  should  extend  these 
plates  by  hammering  them. 

should  is  an  inceptive,  mono  verb,  surrendering  its  ascribing 

power,  but  exerting  its  cordictive  in  aiding  they 
to  form  the  cordiction  of  the  mono,  its  significant 
in  expressing  my  determination  to  compel  them 
to  extend  the  plates  by  hammering  them,  and 
its  time-expressing  power  in  marking^resen*  tense, 
gnomefying  with  they. 

extend  is  a  final,  duo  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive,  its 

ascribing,  and  its  time-expressing  power ;  but  ex- 
erting its  significant  in  expressing  the  process 
of  widening  the  plates  by  hammering  them,  gno- 
mefying with  they,  and  plates. 

12.  He  should  extend  the  hand  of  friendship  even  to  his 
enemies. 

should  is  an  inceptive,  mono  verb,  exerting  the  four  verb 

powers — its  cordictive  in  aiding  he  to  form  the 
cordiction  of  the  mono ;  its  significant  in  express- 
ing the  duty  of  him  to  extend  a  friendly  hand 
even  to  his  enemies ;  its  ascribing  in  attributing 
this  duty  to  him ;  and  its  time-expressing  power 
in  marking  the  present  tense,  gnomefying  with 
he. 

extend  is.  a  final,  duo  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive, 

ascribing,  and  time-expressing  power ;  but  exerting 
its  significant  in  expressing  the  act  of  giving  a 
friendly  hand  even  to  enemies,  gnomefying  with 
he  and  hand. 

13.  They  wish  to  extend  the  time  of  payment. 

trish  is  a  duo,  solo  verb  exerting  the  four  verb  powers — 

its  cordictive  in  aiding  they  to  form  the  cordiction 
of  the  mono ;  its  significant  in  expressing  their 
desire  to  extend  the  time  of  payment ;  its  ascrib- 
ing in  attributing  this  desire  to  them ;  and  its 
time-expressing  power  in  marking  the  present 
tense,  gnomefying  with  they,  and  the  demimono 
which  is  here  rendered  a  noun  by  application. 
to  extend  the  time  is  a  demimono  which  is  here  rendered  an  uncordic- 
tive  noun  by  application,  individual  application, 
panta-theme  reladiction,  ne-ro  genediction,  and  uni 
numerdiction. 

extend  is  a  final,  duo  verb,  surrendering  its  cordictive,  and 

its  ascribing  power ;  but  exerting  its  significant 
in  expressing  the  act  of  prolonging  the  time  of 


252  CLASSIOLOGY. 

payment ;  and  its  time-expressing  power  in  mark- 
ing the  present  tense,  gnomefying  with  they,  and 
time. 

14.  He  extended  mercy  before  the  king. — Ezra  vii. 
extended  is  a  solo,  duo  verb,  exerting  the  four  verb  powers — 

its  cordictive  in  aiding  he  to  form  the  cordiction 
of  the  mono  ;  its  ascribing  in  attributing  to  God 
the  act  of  extending  mercy ;  its  significant  in  ex- 
pressing the  act  of  bestowing  mercy  on  Ezra  before 
the  king ;  and  its  time-expressing  power  in  mark- 
ing the  passed  tense,  gnomefying  with  he,  and 
mercy. 

15.  I  will  extend  peace  to  her  like  a  river.— Isaiah  lxvi. 

will  is  an  inceptive,  mono  verb,  surrendering  its  ascrib- 

ing power ;  but  exerting  its  cordictive  in  aiding  / 
to  form  the  cordiction  of  the  mono  ;  its  signi- 
ficant in  expressing  a  promise  to  send  peace  to 
her  like  a  river ;  and  its  time-expressing  power  in 
marking  the  future  tense,  gnomefying  with  /. 

extend  is  a  final,    duo   verb,    surrendering  its  cordictive, 

ascribing,  and  time-expressing,  power ;  but  exert- 
ing its  significant  in  expressing  the  act  of  impart- 
ing, giving,  or  affording,  peace  to  her,  gnomefying 
with  7",  and  peace. 

16.  Shall  I  send  you  a  piece  of  the  pie? 

Shall  J  is  an  inceptive,  mono  verb,  surrendering  its  ascrib- 

ing power ;  but  exerting  its,  cordictive  in  aiding 
i"  to  form  the  cordiction  of  the  mono ;  its 
significant  in  alluding  to  the  wish,  inclination,  or 
desire  of  the  pros-o-theme  in  relation  to  my  send- 
ing him  a  piece  of  the  pie,  gnomefying  with  /. 

send  is  a  final,  duo   verb,   surrendering   its   cordictive, 

ascribing,  and  tense  power ;  but  exerting  its  sig- 
nificant in  expressing  the  act  of  my  conveying 
to  the  pros-o-theme  a  piece  of  the  pie. 


EXERCISES  IN  NOMINATION,  APPROPRIATION,  AND  CONSTRU- 
ING. 

Let  the  pupil  supply  every  noeton*  as  he  reads  his  mono. 


[The  power  (of  speech)  is]  (a  faculty)  (  ,  , 

peculiar)  (to  man ;)  (and     ,      was  bestowed)  (on  him)  (by 

*  A  Noeton  is  the  word  which  is  understood;  as,  Thoit,  in  Go       ,       to  school. 


CLASSIOLOGY.  263 

his  beneficent  Creator)  (for  the  greatest        ,         ;)  (and 
,        ,        ,        )  (        ,        ,       most  excellent  uses ;) 
(but  (alas !)  how  often  do  we  pervert  it)  (to  the  worst     ,      ) 
(of  purposes !) 

2. 

[The  rapid  extension  (of  the  Christian  religion,)  (through 
the  principal  nations)  (of  the  world,)  may  be  considered] 
(as  a  direct  proof)  (of  the  reality)  (of  the  miracles)  (of  our 
Saviour;)  (and  ,  ,  ,  ,  )(,,,,) 
(of  the  miraculous  powers)  (with  which)  (the  apostles 
(        ,        themselves)  were  endowed.) 

3. 

[The  most  powerful  motives  call]  (on  us)  (for  those 
efforts)  (which  our  common  country  demands)  (of  all  her 
children.) 

4. 
[The  eyes  (of  a  fool)  are]  (in  the  ends)  (of  the  earth.) 

5. 

(In  the  beginning)  [was  the  word  f\  (and  the  word  was) 
(with  God  j)  (and  the  word  was)  (Grod.) 

6. 

[A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard,]  (and  ,  set  a 
hedge)  (about  it,)  (and  ,  digged  a  place)  (for  the 

wine  vat,)  (and         ,         built  a  tower,)  (and         ,  let 

it  out)  (to  husbandmen,)  (and  ,  went)  (into  a  far 

country.) 

7.   J 

[Nature  has  so  exquisitely  modelled  the  human  features] 
(  ,  ,  ,  )  (that)  (they  are  capable)  (of  the 
expression)  (of  the  most  secret  emotions)  (of  the  soul.) 

8. 

[Now,  when  (he  had  ended  all  his  sayings)  (in  the  audi- 
ence) (of  the  people,)  he  entered]  (into  Capernaum.) 

22 


254  CLASSIOLOGY. 

9. 
r  [And  a  certain  centurion's  servant  (who  was  dear)  (unto 
him,)  was  sick,]  (and         ,         ,         ready  to  d}e.) 

10. 

(  Verily,  verily,  [I  say]  (unto  you)  he  (that  entereth  not) 
(by  the  door,)  (into  the  sheepfold,)  (but  ,  climbeth 
up)  (  ,  some  other  way,)  (  ,  ,         )  (the 

same  ,  )  is)  (a  thief,)  (and  ,  7  )  (a 

robber.) 

11. 

[Grive  ,  (         ,  me)  such         ,         ]  (as  I 

purchased ;)  (and         ,         ,         as  much  7         )  (as  I 

purchased;)  {and  I  shall  be  satisfied.) 

12. 

[Do  ,  the  work]  (in  such  a  manner)  (as  will  please 
him ;)  (and  he  will  give  (  ,  you)  as  many  dollars)  (as 
will  pay  you  well)  (for  your  trouble.) 

13.     c. 
[Such         ,         (as  I  have,)  I  will  give]  (unto  thee.) 
[No  such  thing  was  ever  declared]  (as  he  seems  to  recol- 
lect.) 

14. 
(         ,         Much)  (as  man  desires)  [a  little  will  answer.] 
[As  (Jesus  passed  by,)  he  saw  a  man]  (that  was  blind) 
(from  his  birth.) 

15. 
[As  long  (as  I  am)  (in  the  world,)  I  am]  (the  light)  (of  tho 
world.) 

16. 
[He  was  good]  (as  well  as        ,        ,        rich.) 

17. 
[They  came]  (as  pupils)  (to  my  school.) 

18. 
[I  must  not  use  another's  book  when]  (I  have  one)  (of  my 
own.)* 

*  "Own,"  is  here  made  a  noun  by  application. 


classiologt.  255 

19. 
[They  accommodate  one  another  daily.] 

20. 
[Give        ,         (        ,        James)  another  apple.] 

21. 
[The  interest  (of  another       ,       )  is  not  as  dear]  (to  me) 
(as  my  own         ,         ,         .)      j 

22. 
[I  claim  this  One]  (for  my  own         ,         ) — (but  another 
,     claims  it)  (as  another's        ,         ,) 

23. 
[This  day  suits  my  interest ;]  (another         ,         may  suit 
another's        ;         better)  (than  this       ,       ,       ,       ,       .) 

24. 
[Any  interest  (except  my  own      ,      )  is  another's     ,     .] 

25. 
[The  boy  was  called]  (         ,         ,         ,         )(     ,     John.) 

26. 
[The  army  is  (  ,  f         ,  )  (  ,  ten 

thousand  men)  strong.] 

27.      ' 
H  have  some  recollection]  (       ,       that)  (his  father  was) 
(a  judge.) 

28. 


[The  wall  is  ( 
liigh.] 

29. 

)  (       ,       six  feet) 

[The  board  is  ( 
thick.] 

»         *.        > 

)  (         ,         an  inch) 

30. 

[This  boy  is  ( 
old.] 

>          y          t 

)  (         ,         ten  years) 

31. 

' 

[He  counted  his 
man)  (by  man.) 

army  J  (         , 

>         ,   ♦    )(        , 

256  CLASSIOLOGY. 

32. 
[Henry  rode]  (         ,         ,  ,         )  (         ,         day) 

(after  day.) 

33. 
[They  stood]  (  ,  ,  ,  )  (  ,  one 

,         )  (by  another        ,         .) 

34. 

[The  children  were  arranged]  (  ,  ,  ,         ) 

(        ,         one        ,         )  (after  another        ,         .) 

[For  more  Exercises,  take  Book  T.;  pages  51,  52,  96 ; 
Book  II.,  pages  138,  181.] 
[See  the  Exegesis.] 


SYNTAX.  257 

PART   III. 


LESSON  I. 
SYNTAX. 


Syntax  respects  the  principles  on  which  sen- 
tences are  formed  from  words. 
Or,  Syntax  respects 

1.  The  form,  the  position,  and  the  suitableness  of  one 
word  in  regard  to  another. 

2.  The  position,  and  form  of  one  mono  in  respect  to 
another. 

8.  The  agreement  of  certain  words  in  etiological  pro- 
perties. 

4.  The  plenary,  and  implenary  notation  of  monos,  and 
sentences. 

5.  What  particular  words  should  be  employed. 

6.  The  state  of  syllabanes  which  are  rendered  nouns  by 
application. 

7.  The  repetition,  and  the  non'repetition  of  words. 

8.  The  legitimate  forms  of  words. 

9.  Ascription  of  attributes  to  their  own  subjects. 

10.  The  throwing  of  things  into  different  classes  by  the 
omission  of  other,  and  the  retaining  of  things  in  the  same 
class  by  the  use  of  other. 

11.  The  contrasting  of  one  object  with  another  upon  tlje 
principle  of  a  difference  in  time,  or  in  space. 

12.  The  including  of  the  whole,  or  a  mere  part  of  the 
class  of  things. 

13.  The  prevention  of  the  generic  application  of  certain 
clan  nouns. 

22* 


258  SYNTAX. 

14.  The  unity,  or  the  kind  of  what  is  named. 

15.  Notoriety ■,  or  a  want  of  notoriety — or  a  known,  or  an 
unknown,  state  of  objects. 

16.  The  restriction  of  certain  nouns. 

17.  Force,  perspicuity,  euphony,  and  continuity. 

18.  The  number  of  negatives  which  may  be  used  in  one 
mono. 

19.  The  prior  mentioning  of  objects,  and  the  individuality 
of  objects. 

20.  Sameness  in  cordictive  theme,  and  in  uncordictive 
theme. 

RULES  RESPECTING  THE  FORMS   OP  WORDS. 

Rule  I. 

The  medial,  or  the  final  verb  which  follows  a 
verb  that  is  uniformly  inceptive,  should  have  its 
primitive  form ;  as,  He  can  write. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  I. 

1.  He  can  writes  letters. 

The  s  inflection  of  write,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  I. 
Rule * ;  as,  He  can  write  letters. 

2.  Thou  canst  not  went. 
The  use  of  went  for  go,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  I. 
Rule , *  ;  as,  Thou  canst  not  go. 

The  pupil  should  be  made  to  correct  exactly  according  to  the 
Specimens.  "Where  the  violation  lies  in  the  inflection  of  the  verb, 
he  should  be  made  to  correct  by  the  first  specimen ;  as,  He  can 
understand*. 

But  where  the  violation  lies  in  the  use  of  one  entire  verb  for 
another  verb,  he  should  correct  by  the  second  specimen ;  as,  He 
can  is  a  good  boy. 

(The  use  of  is  for  be  is  a  violation  of  Rule  I.) 

*  Here  give  the  Rule. 


SYNTAX.  '  -  259 

Directions. — In  the  following  Exercises,  the  violations 
of  the  Rules,  lie  in  the  trones,  and  cordictive  clads — hence 
the  pupil  should  give  no  attention  to  uncordictive  clads. 

Dispose  of  the  trones  first,  in  all  instances. 


EXERCISES. 


They  can  are]  (good  boys.) 
.  [This  boy  must  is]  (a  good  boy.) 
.    [Thou  wilt  art]  (a  dull  pupil.) 
Could  he  is]  (a  fine  child  ?) 
He  might  studies  too  hard.] 
Thou  shouldst  keeps  quiet.] 
Jacob  will  falls.] 
I  may  went.] 


Note  I. 

The  final  verb  of  do  and  did,  should  have  its  primitive 
form;  as,  They  do  write;  They  did  write. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Note  I.  under  Rule  I. 

1.  I  do  writes. 
The  *  inflection  of  write,  is  a  violation  of  Note  I. 
Note ;  as,  I  do  write. 

2.  [I  did  went]  (last  week.) 
The  use  of  went  for  go,  is  a  violation  of  Note  I. 
Note ;  as,  I  did  go  last  week. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  James  did  fell. 

2.  Does  he  likes  fruit? 

3.  Harriet  did  wrote  ? 

4.  Thou  didst  went. 

6.  Thou  didst  came  in. 

6.  She  does  speaks  correctly. 

7.  Thou  didst  goest  out. 

8.  Whom  did  they  sent? 

Can  do,  and  did,  ever  be  used  with  be,  or  any  of  be' 8  substitutes  ? 
Did  cannot — and  do  cannot  except  in  a  kind  of  petition,  where  it 
may  be  used  with  be  only ;  as,  John,  do  be  a  good  boy. 


260  SYNTAX. 


Rule  II. 

When  the  cordiction  is  a  mere  command,  or 
a  mere  petition,  the  verb  should  have  its  primi- 
tive form ;  as,  Be  thou  here  in  time ;  Go  thou 
to  school;  Come  ye  home;  Forgive  thou  our 
sins. 

REMARK. 

There  may  be  a  command  with  an  affirmation;  as,  Thou  shalt 
not  steal.  And  there  may  be  a  petition  with  an  interrogation;  as, 
Will  you  lend  me  your  knife  ? 

Specimen  of  Correcting  under  Rule  II. 

1.  Loves  your  enemies. 

The  *  inflection  of  love,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  II. 
Rule ;  as,  Love  your  enemies. 

EXERCISES. 


1.  [Writes,  these  copies  accurately,]  (John.) 


2. 


Comes  in,]  (sir.) 
Forgives  thou  our  sins.] 
4.  [Has  thou  mercy]  (upon  us.) 

^Goes  to  the  well]  (and  brings    ,    some  water.) 
Blesses  them]  (that  persecute  you.) 


Rule  III. 

Have,  through  all  its  variations,  gives  the 
following  verb  the  tenseless  Have  and  Be  form, 
or  some  inflection  which  is  substituted  for  this 
form ;  as,  Have  written,  not  wrote  ;  Must  have 
flown,  not  flew ;  Hath  fallen,  not  fell;  Hath 
drunk,  not  drank. 


SYNTAX.  261 

Note. — Hide  has  the  IFave  and  Be  form — still  hid  is  frequently 
flubstituted  for  this  form.  Have  hidden.  This  is  the  case  with 
several  other  verbs. 


Specimen  of  correcting  under  Rule  III. 
1.  I  have  did  it. 
The  want  of  the  Have  and  Reform  of  do,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  III. 
Rule ;  as,  I  have  done  it. 

2.  The  boiler  had  bursts. 
The  want  of  the  primitive  state  of  burst,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  III. 
Rule ;  as,  The  boiler  had  burst. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  He  has  wrote  his  copy. 

2.  I  would  have  wrote  a  letter. 

3.  He  has  drank. 

4.  I  have  came. 

5.  I  had  did  it.  <     » , 

6.  The  birds  have  flew. 

7.  He  had  mistook  his  true  interest. 

8.  He  has  wove  the  web. 

9.  [His  vices  have  weakened  his  mind]  (and  broke  his  consti- 
tution.) 

10.  [He  has  took  the  gun]  (with  him.) 

11.  [Joseph  has  fell]  (down  stairs.) 

12.  [The  court  has  Went]  (into  an  examination.) 

13.  They  have  invite  her  home. 


Rule  IV. 

Be,  through  all  its  variations,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing verb  the  tenseless  Be,  or  the  tenseless 
Have  and  Be  form,  or  some  form  which  is 
substituted  for  the  Have  and  Be  form;  as,  Is 
written,  (not  wrote;)  Is  writing,  (not  write.) 

The  variations  of  Be,  are  am,  art,  is,  are,  was,  wast,  were,  been, 
and  being.  <p 

Note. — Be  never  gives  the  tenseless  Have  and  Be  form  to  be. 
We  do  not  say — I  must  be  been ;  I  am  being ;  I  am  been. 


262  SYNTAX. 

SpeciTnen  of  Correcting  hi/  Uule  IV. 

1.  The  hat  was  took. 

The  want  of  the  tenseless  Have  and  Be  form,  of  take,  is  a  viola- 
tion of  Rule  IV. 
Rule ;  as,  The  hat  was  taken. 

2.  He  was  laugh  heartily. 

The  want  of  the  tenseless  Be  form  of  laugh  is  a  violation  of 
Rule  IV. 

Rule ;  as,  He  was  laughing  heartily. 

3.  The  work  was  well  execute. 

The  want  of  the  passed  tense  form  of  execute,  is  a  violation  of 
Rule  IV.* 
Rule ;  as,  The  work  was  well  execute. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  It  was  drank. 

2.  [His  resolution  was  too  strong  to  be  shook]  (by  opposition.) 

3.  The  horse  was  stole. 

4.  The  Rhine  was  froze  over. 

5.  [She  was  invite]  (into  the  drawing  room.) 

6.  [Some  fell]  (by  the  way  side,)  (and  was.  trod  down.) 

7.  The  work  was  very  well  execute. 

8.  It  has  been  did. 

9.  [The  French  language  is  spoke]  (in  many  countries.)    • 

10.  He  was  then  breathe  easily. 

11.  The  water  was  run  rapidly. 


KULE  V. 

The  uni  cordictive  pronoun  of  the  par-e-theme 
reladiction  substitutes  am  for  he  in  the  present, 
and  was  for  am  in  the  passed  tense ;  as,  I  am  ;  I 
tvas ;  He  saw  me  who  am  his  friend. 

Who  is  synonymous  with  me — hence  who  is  uni,  and  par-e-themic. 
*  The  passed  tense  form  is  here  the  Have  and  Be  form. 


SYNTAX.  263 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  V. 
1.   [I  be]  (in  good  health.) 
The  use  of  be  for  am,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  V. 
Rule ;  as,  [I  am]  (in  good  health.) 


EXERCISES. 

1.  I  is  sick. 

2.  [I  are]  (his  friend.) 

8.    'I  is}  (the  man)  (who  is)  (thy  commander.) 

4.  I  (that  were  there)  is  now  to  declaim.] 

5.  'I  (who  art  bad)  must  repent.] 

6.  [I  (that  are  friendly)  (to  all)  are  glad  to  see  thee.] 

Rule  VJ. 

If  there  is  neither  a  command,  nor  a  petition, 
the  uni  cordidive  pronoun  of  the  pros-o-theme  re- 
ladiction,  substitutes  art  for  be  in  the  present, 
and  toast  for  art  in  the  passed  tense :  as,  Thou 
art ;  Thou  wast ;  He  saw  thee  who  art  here. 

Who  is  synonymous  with  thee — hence  it  is  uni,  and  proe-o-ihemic. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  VI. 
1.  [Thou  be]  (a  good  boy.) 

The  use  of  be  for  art  is  a  violation  of  Rule  VI. 
Rule ;  as,  [Thou  art]  (a  good  boy.) 

J  EXERCISES. 

1.  Thou  is  not  sick. 

2.  [Thou  is]  (my  friend.) 

3.  Thou  surely  am  well. 

4.  [Is  thou  not]  (his  son  ?) 

5.  [Thou  could  be  employed]  (if  thou  was  sober.) 

6.  [Was  thou]  (at  church)  (    ,     last  Sabbath  ?) 

7.  Is  thou  reading,]  (Charles  ?) 

8.  [Why  am  thou  not]  (a  philosopher  ?) 

9.  [He  saw  thee]  (who  are  fishing.) 

10.  [Thou  (who  are  skilful)  am  able  to  heal  the  sick.] 

11.  [I  went]  (with  thee)  (who  are  ignorant)  (of  the  way.) 


264  SYNTAX. 


Rule  VII. 


The  uni  cordictive  noun  of  the  panta-theme 
reladiction,  substitutes  is  for  art,  in  the  present, 
and  was  for  wast  in  the  passed  tense ;  as,  She 
is;  She  was;  I  saw  him  who  was  here  last 
evening. 

Who  is  synonymous  with  him — hence  it  is  uni,  and  panta-themic. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  oy  Rule  VII. 
1.   [He  are]  (with  you.) 

The  use  of  are  for  is,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  VII. 

RULE •  as,  [He  is]  (with  you.)  -     . 


EXERCISES. 


He  am]  (with  John.) 


She  are]  (his  sister. 
'This  book  (which  I  have)  are  old.] 
"The  pen  (and  the  knife         ,       "-j         )  are  new.] 
'Life  (and  death     ,)(      ,      ,      >)(>»>)  are]  (in 
the  power)  (of  the  tongue.) 

6.  [Every  plant      ,>](>>»)(>      every  flower 
,,)(,,,)  (and  every  drop  (of  water)  are  replete) 

(with  living  creatures.) 

7.  [This  is]  (the  man)  (who  were  so  sick.) 

8.  =Get  such  a  book]  (as  are  suitable)  (for  the  Child.) 

9.  [Get  the  book]  (that  are  well  bound.) 

10.  'Either  the  boy,  (or  the  girl)  were  present.] 

11.  I  (and  he)  are.]     See  the  Exegesis. 

12.  'Death  are]  (the  wages)  (of  sin.) 

13.  The  court  are  agreed.     See  the  Exegesis. 

14.  One  jury  are  dismissed. 

15.  (From  this  rule)  [there  are  a  number]  (of  exceptions.) — 
Peter  Bullions'  English  Grammar,  page  139. 

16.  And  not  only  are  the  mass  (of  the  people)  ignorant  of  Eng- 
lish grammar,  &c. — H.  A.  Pile's  English  Grammar. 

17.  (If  he  were)  (a  good  boy)  [     ,,,,•] 

18.  [Your  hand  are  small]  (but  mine  are  large.)     See  the  Exjs 

GE8IS. 


SYNTAX.  265 

Rule  VIII. 

If  there  is  neither  a  command,  nor  a  petition, 
the  cordictive  plus  noun,  or  pronoun,  requires 
are  in  the  present,  and  were  in  the  passed  tense ; 
as,  We  are,  you  are,  they  are;  We  were,  you 
were,  they  were. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  VIII. 

1.  We  w  well  pleased. 

The  use  of  is  for  are,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  VIII. 
Rulb ;  as,  We  are  well  pleased. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  We  was  sleeping. 

2.  They  is  running. 

3.  Is  they  all  well  ? 

4.  [Was  they]  (at  home  ?) 

5.  'They  was]  (in  the  city.) 

6.  [They  be]  (fine  apples.) 

7.  These  is]  (the  men)  (who  was)  (with  you)  (    ,    yesterday.) 

8.  The  gentlemen  art  satisfied;]  (and  the  ladies  is  pleased.) 

9.  The  boys  (who  was  here)  am]  (in  school.) 

10.  Give  (me)  such  apples]  (as  is  saleable.) 

11.  [All  the  congregations  (in  town)  is  small.] 


Rule  IX. 

The  uni  cordictive  pronoun  of  the  par-e- 
theme  reladiction,  cuts  off  the  reladictive  in- 
flection from  every  inceptive,  and  from  every 
solo  verb ;  as,  I  can  go ;  I  write ;  I  wrote ;  I 
have  written  ;  It  is  /  who  laugh,  (Not  I  cans 
go;  I  writes;  I  wrotestf;  I  has  written;  who 
laughs.) 

23 


266  SYNTAX. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  IX. 

1.  I  writes  letters. 

The  s  inflection  of  write,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  IX. 
Rule  — — — — ;  as,  I  write  letters. 


EXERCISES. 


1.  I  wrotest  letters. 

2.  I  thinketh  so. 

3.  I  believes  it. 

4.  I  runs  very  fast. 


Says  I]  (he  will  not  come.) 


.  were  *rell  pleased. 

7.  [The  boy  saw  me]  (who  were  then)  (his  protector.) 

8.  1  (who  teaches  thee)  wilt  go]  (with- you)  (to  church.) 

9.  [He    ,     ]  (     ,     thou    ,     )  (and  I  writes.) 

10.  [Thinks  I]  (to  myself.) 

11.  [Says  I]  (he  is  very  sick.) 


KULE   X. 

If  there  is  neither  a  command,  nor  a  'peti- 
tion, the  uni  cordidive  pronoun  of  the  pros-o- 
theme  reladiction,  gives  the  t,  or  st  inflection  to 
every  inceptive,  and  solo  verb  which  can  take 
these  inflections ;  as,  Thou  canstf  write ;  Thou 
writer ;  Thou  wrotest ;  Thou  hastf  written; 
It  is  thou  who  laughs. 

Must  cannot  take  either  of  these  inflections.  We  cannot  say, 
Thou  muster  write. 

Wast  is  not  a  substitute  for  was — for  the  t  inflection  is  a  mere 
variation  of  was,  which  is  produced  by  the  reladiction  of  thou. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  X. 

1.  Thou  wrote  too  soon. 

The  want  of  the  st  inflection  of  wrote,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  X, 
Rule ;  as,  Thou  wrotestf  too  soon. 


SYNTAX.  267 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Thou  smiles. 

2.  Thou  runs. 

3.  Thou  cans  walk. 

4.  Thou  loved  thy  son  too  little. 
6.  Thou  did  not  see  him. 

Thou  has  a  fine  book,]  (Stephen.) 

The  child  saw  thee]  (who  loves  it.) 

Thou  (that  reads  orations)  can  declaim.] 

I    ,     ]  (     ,     he    ,     )  (    ,     and  thou  laugh.) 

If  thou  do  not  think  more)  [thou  will  never  learn.) 


Rule  XI. 

The  uni  cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  of  the  panta- 
theme  reladiction,  gives  the  s,  es,  or  th  inflection, 
in  the  present,  and  in  the  represent  tense,  to  every 
inceptive  and  to  every  solo  verb  which  can  take 
these  inflections  ;  as,  Henry  has  a  book ;  John 
ha*  written  a  book;  Nathaniel  binds  books; 
The  jury  has  agreed;  The  meeting  h&th  dis- 
persed ;  A  meeting  of  your  friends  has  been 
called ;  The  court  decides. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  XL 
1-  £He«mtf«](to  his  friend)  (every  week.) 

The  want  of  the  *  inflection  of  twite,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XI. 
Kile => •;  as,  [He  writes]  (to  his  friend,)  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  James  write  letters. 

2.  f  Stephen  walk]  (with  me.) 

3.  It  rain  quite  fast. 

4.  She  sing  sweetly. 

5-  The  apple  taste  sweet. 

6.  The  grass  grow  high. 

7.  [The  number  amount]  (to  seven  hundred.) 


268  SYNTAX. 

8.  [I    ,     ,     ]  (and  thou    ,     ,     )  (and  he  write  letters.) 

9.  (If  Jason  come)  (forme)  [I  will  go]  (with  him.) 

Note. — Every  noun  denoting  an  assemblage,  or  collective  body, 
is  uni,  until  it  is  plused  by  a plumedium ;  as,  Jury,  juries;  Court, 
courts;  Meeting,  meetings. 

We  cannot  say,  three  court,  two  jury,  seven  meeting,  these  com- 
mittee. Hence  we  should  not  say,  the  jury  are,  the  court  have,  the 
meeting  were  addressed. 

If  these  collective  nouns,  as  they  are  called  in  the  old  theory, 
are  plus,  they  would  take  three,  or  any  other  plural  adjective.  We 
can  say,  one  court ;  but  we  cannot  say  two  court. 


Rule  XII. 

The  cordictive  plus  noun,  or  pronoun  cuts  off 
all  the  reladictive  inflections;  as,  Hoys  read;  You 
write  ;  They  laugh  ;  Men  ivho  try,  succeed. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  XII. 
1.  We  reads  books. 

The  s  inflection  of  read  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XII. 
Rule ;  as,  We  read  books. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  We  laughs. 

2.  They  speaks  slowly. 

3.  The  men  talks. 

4.  These  lads  runs. 

5.  Hence  comes  wars. 

6.  [They  (who  tries)  succeeds.] 

7.  [Fifty  pounds  (of  wheat)  contains]  (forty  pounds)  (of  flour.) 

8.  [The  men  (who  sells  apples)  makes  money  slowly.] 
Printers  (who  perseveres)  makes  fortunes.] 
The  boys  (that  goes)  (to  school)  learns.] 
y\\e  birds  (which  flies  high)  has  strong  wings.] 
'The  apples  (which  grows)  (on  that  tree)  falls  off  before] 

(they  become  ripe.) 

13.  [The  lads  (who  has  written  their  copies)  has  gone  out.] 

14.  [He  has  such  apples]  (as  grows)  (on  your  young  trees)  (in 
the  garden.) 

15.  [As  many  boys  (as  has  returned)  will  study  their  books  im- 
mediately.] 


SYNTAX.  269 


Remark  I. 

A  pronoun  which  is  plused  by  imputation,  may  be  plused  bj 
two  uni  nouns,  or  pronouns,  even  when  they  are  in  different 
monos;  as,  [He  saw  me]  (and  her)  (who  are  his  friends.) 

16.  [I  saw  the  girl,]  (and  boy)  (who  goes)  (to  that  school.) 

17.  [He  hired  the  servant,]  (and  rented  the  plantation)  (that 
belongs}  (to  ay  brother.) 

18.  [He  occupies  the  house]  (as  well  as  the  bars)  (which  belongs) 
(to  William  Johnson.) 

Remark  II. 

Where  the  pronoun  is  synonymous  with  tent  nouns  by  alternation, 
it  is  not  plused. 

19. 
20. 
21. 


tnrned.] 


I  saw  John]  (or  James)  (who  were)  (at  church.) 
r Henry  (or  Stephen    ,    )  (who  were)  (in  the  house)  laughed.] 
Isaac  (or  Newton    ,     ,     )  (who  were)  (at  school)  has  re- 


REMARK. 


The  following  Rule  may  be  read,  and  the  exercises  under 
it  may  be  made  to  suit  it.  Yet,  as  the  Rule  itself  is  founded 
in  error,  the  author  cannot  recommend  any  person  to  speak, 
or  write  by  it.  The  doctrine  of  this  Rule,  is  discussed  in 
the  Appeal,  under  page  237. 

Rule  XIII. 

When  the  verb  which  is  expressed  in  the 
sub  mono,  subjoined  by  and,  is  understood  in 
the  super  one,  the  ellipsis  cuts  off  the  rela- 
dietive  inflections,  and,  if  there  is  neither  a 
command,  nor  a  petition,  requires  are,  or  were; 
as,  [I  ,  ~\(and  John  laugh ;)[I  ,  ,  ,  ~\(and 
thou  are)  (his  friends ;)  [Thou  ,  ,  , 
(and  I  were)  (his  friends.) 

23* 


270  SYNTAX. 

This  Rule  is  inserted  in  compliance  "with  custom,  but  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  true  principles  of  our  language. 

That  it  is  the  ellipsis  which  cuts  off  these  inflections,  and  requires 
are,  or  were,  is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  when  the  superior  mono 
is  made  plenary,  the  singular  noun  or  pronoun,  in  both  monos,  has 
the  same  influence  over  the  verb,  which  it  has  where  and  does  not 
occur;  a's,  [I  am]  (his  friend,)  (and  he  is)  (his  friend,)  not,  [I  are~\ 
(his  friends,)  (and  he  are)  (his  friends.}  [I  laugh,]  (and  John 
laughs,)  not,  [I  laughs,"]  (and  John  laugh.) 

The  verb,  then,  receives  the  plural  number,  as  they  call  it,  not 
because  of  and,  nor  because  of  the  two  nominatives  which  we  are 
told,  are  connected  by  and,  but  merely,  because  the  verb  which  is 
expressed  in  the  mono  subjoined  by  and,  is  understood  in  the 
mono  with  which  and's  mono  gnomefies.  The  verb,  therefore, 
agrees,  not  with  the  nominative,  but  with  the  ellipsis  in  the  super 
mono! 


Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XIII. 

1.  [I  (and  John    ,    )  laughs.] 

The  *  inflection  of  laugh,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XIII. 
Note ;  as,  [I  (and  John    ,    )  laugh.] 

The  following  exercises  are  correct  English  as  they  now  stand, 
according  to  the  principles  of  that  relation  which  exists  between 
the  cordictive  noun  and  the  verb — but  they  are  placed  under  the 
thirteenth  Rule,  to  be  deformed  (not  corrected)  by  the  doctrine  of 
custom.     [See  the  Exegesis.] 


EXERCISES. 


Socrates,  (and  Plato}  was]  (an  eminent  philosopher.) 

The  son,  (and  father)  meets.] 

Life,  (and  death)  is]  (in  the  power)  (of  the  tongue.) 

The  time,  (and  place)  was  appointed.] 

Idleness,  (and  ignorance)  is]  (the  parent)  (of  many  vices. ) 


Rule  XIV. 

To,  in  the  demimono,  whether  expressed,  or 
understood,  gives  the  inceptive,  and  the  solo 
verb  the  primitive  form ;  as,  To  have  been  pun- 
ished; To  fo  written;  To  punish  ;  To  write. 


SYNTAX. 


271 


Notts. — Have,  and  be  are  the  only  inceptive  verbs  which  can  be 
used  in  the  demimono.  And  have,  and  been  are  the  only  medial 
ones  which  can  be  used  in  the  demimono. 

Have,  and  be  may  be  solo  verbs  in  the  demimono ;  as,  Henry 
wishes  to  be  good ;  Charles  desires  to  have  a  new  book. 


Rule  XV. 


Uni  nouns  which  terminate  with  but  one  s> 
and  nouns  whether  uni,  or  plus,  which  do  not 
terminate  with  s,  are  rendered  adjectives  by 
affixing  an  apostrophe,  and  an  s;  thus  Js. 


1.  James* 8  glove, 

2.  John's  hat, 

3.  A  lady's  ring, 

4.  A  child's  tooth, 

5.  Children's  teeth, 
(k  Teeth's  position, 


Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XV. 

1.  Hudsons'  Bay. 

As  Hudson  is  uni,  and  has  no  terminating  8,  it  should  be  ren- 
dered an  adjective  by  placing  the  apostrophe  be/ore  the  af- 
fixed 8. 

Rule ;  as,  Hudson's  Bay. 

2.  Bullions'  Grammar. 

As  Bullions  is  uni,  and  has  a  terminating  s,  it  should  be  ren- 
dered an  adjective  by  placing  the  apostrophe  before  the  affixed  s. 
Rule ;  as,  Bullions'*  Grammar. 


EXERCISES. 


1.  Pompeys'  pillar. 

2.  Virtues'  reward. 

3.  A  good  mans'  heart. 

4.  Helens'  beauty. 

6.  A  moments'  attention. 
C.  Georges'  book. 


7.  A  mothers'  tenderness. 

8.  A  fathers'  care. 

9.  Natures'  gifts. 

10.  Troys'  destruction. 

11.  A  days'  journey. 

12.  Philips'  hat. 


272  -  SYNTAX. 


Rule  XVI. 


TJni  nouns  which  terminate  with  ss,  and  plus 
ones  which  terminate  with  s,  are  rendered  ad- 
jectives by  placing  the  apostrophe  after  the 
terminating  ss,  or  s;  as,  For  holiness1  sake; 
Ladies'  hats ;  Fagks'  wings. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XVI. 

1.  Ladle' s  rings. 

As  ladies  is  plus,  and  terminates  with  s,  it  should  be  rendered  an 
adjective  by  placing  the  apostrophe  after  the  s. 
Rule ;  as,  Ladies'  rings. 

2.  Holiness  sake. 

As  holiness  is  «m,  and  terminates  with  ss,  it  should  be  rendered 
an  adjective  by  placing  the  apostrophe  (')  after  the  ss. 
Rule ;  as,  Holiness'  sake. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  The  likenes's  accuracy.         6.  Six  pen's  points. 

2.  Righteousnes's  cause.  7.  Five  tree's  branches. 

3.  Bas's  staff.  8.  Both  ship's  crews. 

4.  This  las's  finger  ring.  9.  Many  fishe's  fins. 

5.  This  mis's  hat.  10.  Thirty  file's  teeth. 


Remark  I. 

When  the  s,  used  to  render  a  noun  an  adjective,  will 
coalesce  with  the  adjective  itself,  the  s  is  pronounced  in  the 
same  syllable ;  as,  John's  hat. 

But  when  the  s  does  not  harmonize,  another  syllable  is 
added  in  the  pronunciation;  as,  Thomas',  Bliss'.  Pro- 
nounced, ThomasiSj  Blissis. 

Remark  II. 

Where  several  of  these  apostropMc  adjectives  fall  in  succes- 
sion, it  is  deemed  sufficient,  by  some  grammarians,  to  express. 


SYNTAX.  373 

the  adjective  sign  after  the  last  word  only;  as,  John,  Jane, 
Stephen,  and  Cluster's  book. 

The  adjective  sign  is  understood  at  John,  Jane,  and  Ste- 
phcn.  But  this  sign  should  certainly  be  expressed  after 
each  word;  as,  John's,  Jane's,  Stephen's,  and  Chester's 
book.     This  is  ('Jane  book,"  is  not  English. 


Remark  III. 

When  the  sign  of  the  attribute  is  made  the  trunk  word, 
the  name  of  the  subject  should  have  the  apostrophic  adjective 
form;  as,  [John's  going  (to  Boston,)  was  well  known.] 
[They  knew]  (of  John's  going)  (to  Boston.) 

Note. — Going,  is  the  name  of  the  attribute,  and  is  here  made  the 
trunk  word.  John  is  the  subject  of  this  attribute — hence,  the 
word,  John,  is  thrown  into  the  apostrophic  adjective  form.  John  going, 
is  not  English. 

Rule  XVII. 

Every  adverb  should  end  in  ly  if  the  word 
can  take  this  inflection ;  as,  They  write  accu- 
rate/y  ;  She  conducted  herself  modesty. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XVII. 

1.  He  writes  correct. 

The  want  of  the  ly  inflection  of  correct,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XVII. 
Rule ;  as,  He  writes  correct/y. 


EXERCISE8. 

1.  She  sings  sweet. 

2.  Grammarians  should  speak  accurate. 

3.  The  ship  moves  smooth  along. 

4.  This  note  is  written  very  correct. 

6.  He  conducts  himself  very  upright. 
G.  His  property  is  near  exhausted. 

7.  [She  writes  neat,]  (and  spells  accurate.) 

8.  They  appear  to  be  neat  finished. 

9.  [Hers  speaks  as  correct]  (as  yours.) 


274  SYNTAX. 


Note  I. 


The  ly  inflection  should  not  be  given  to  the  super  adverb 
when  the  sub  can  take  it ;  as,  She  behaved  exceedingly  in- 
discreet. 

But  if  the  sub  cannot  take  the  ly  inflection,  and  the  super 
can,  this  inflection  must  be  given  to  the  super;  as,  She 
behaves  very  discreetly. 


Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Note  I.  under  Rule  XVII. 

1.  She  behaved  exceeding  indiscretJy. 

The  ly  inflection  of  indiscreet,  is  a  violation  of  Note  I.  under 
Rule  XVII. 
Note ;  as,  She  behaved  exceedingly  indiscreet. 

2.  She  behaves  very  discreet. 

The  want  of  the  ly  inflection  of  discreet,  is  a  violation  of  the 
second  clause  of  Note  I.  under  Rule  XVII. 

Second  clause  of  Note  I. ;  as,  She  behaves  very 

discreet^. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  They  behaved  exceedingly  rudely. 

2.  They  write  remarkably  accurately. 

3.  They  ran  astonishing  swiftly. 


Note  II. 

When  the  quality  is  expressed  as  belonging  to  the  event, 
but  by  inference,  carried  to  the  thing,  the  adverb  should 
drop  the  ly  ;  as,  The  grass  appears  green. 

Green  shows  how  the  grass  appears,  not  how  it  is. 

Specimen  of  correcting  by  Note  II.  under  Rule  XVII. 

1.  The  man  appears  oddly. 

The  ly  inflection  of  odd,   is  a  violation  of  Note  II.  under 
Rule  XVII. 
Note ■ ;  as,  the  man  appears  odd. 


SYNTAX. 


EXERCISES. 


275 


1.  The  bird  looks  beautifully. 

2.  The  lady  appeared  gaily. 

3.  She  appears  handsomely. 

4.  The  stick  looks  crookedly. 

5.  The  paper  appears  whitely. 

6.  The  block  looks  squarely. 


Note  HI. 


..*■ 


There  are  some  adverbs  that  represent  the  certain  condi- 
tion, or  state  which  the  person,  or  thing  receives  from  the 
action  denoted  by  the  verb,  that  should  drop  the  ly;  as,  He 
sinks  deep;  The  purest  clay  burns  white;  The  pupil  should 
write  slowly,  and  exact. 


Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Note  III.  under  Rule  XVII. 

1.  He  sinks  deeply. 

The  ly  inflection  of  deep,  is  a  violation  of  Note  III.  under 
Kulb  XVII. 
Notb ;  as,  He  sinks  deep. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [prink  deeply,]  (or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring.) 

2.  Heaven  opened  widely  her  ever  during  gates. 

3.  The  victory  cost  them  dearly. 

4.  [Thickly,  (and  more  thickly)  the  steelly  circle  grows.] 

5.  ]The  cakes  taste  shortly,]  (and  crisply.) 

6.  'John  marched  straightly]  (up  a  steep  ascent)  (of  steps) 
(which  were  cut  closely,)  (and  deeply)  (into  the  rock.) 


Rule  XVIII. 

Every  subadjective  should  end  in  ly  if  the 
word  can  take  this  inflection ;  as,  Henry  wag 
exceeding^  careful ;  He  was  unusua%  good. 


276  ,  SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  (Unto  us)  [are  given  exceeding  great  promises.] 
2r.  fit  is]  (remarkable  fine  weather.) 


Note  I. 

Where  the  subadjective  can  be  incorporated  with  its 
super  by  a  hyphen,  (-)  it  should  not  have  the  ly  inflection; 
as  a  new  fashioned  hat.     (iVew-fashioned  hat.) 

/Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Note  I.  under  Rule  XVIII. 

1.  This  is  an  oddZy  constructed  house. 
The  ly  inflection  of  odd,  is  a  violation  of  Note  I.  under  Rule 
XVIII. 
Note ;  as,  [This  is]  (an  odd  constructed  house.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [Man  is]  (a  nobly  minded  being.) 

2.  A  newly  fashioned  hat. 

3.  [He  is]  (a  highly  minded  man.) 

4.  A  roundly  shaped  apple. 

5.  A  squarely  formed  figure. 

6.  An  oddly  fashioned  house. 


Note  II. 

As  the  noun  in  the  tenseless  Be  form  is  always  a  verb  in 
relation  to  adverbsj  the  adverbs  which  gnomefy  with  it 
should  have  the  same  inflection  which  they  have  when  they 
gnomefy  with  any  other  verb;  as,  He  was  praised  for  the 
drawing  of  the  picture  accurately.    [Not  accurate."] 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Note  II.  under  Rule  XVIII. 

I.  (In  the  writing  (of  the  letter)  accurate,)  [he  showed  his  gram- 

matical skill.] 
The  want  of  the  ly  inflection  of  accurate,  is  a  violation  of  Note 

II.  under  Rule  XVIII. 

Note  -m  In  the  writing  of  the  letter  accu- 
rately, &c 


SYNTAX.  277 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [The  drawing  (of  the  papers)  hasty,  occasioned  a  serious 
difficulty.] 

2.  [He  was  praised]  (for  the  drawing  (of  the  picture)  elegant.) 

3.  (In    ,     speaking  (     ,      ,     )  improper)  [teachers  set  (    , 
their  pupils)  bad  examples.] 

4.  (By  ,  constructing  (  ,  sentences)  (in  general,)  inaccu- 
rate) [those  ,  (who  write  grammars)  demonstrate  a  want]  (of 
Bkill,)  (which  renders  them  incompetent  to  improve  Murray.) 

6.  (In  ,  memorizing  (  ,  the  old  theory)  (of  grammar,) 
even  thorough)  [the  pupil  does  not  become]  (a  grammarian.) 


Rule  XIX. 

The  cordictive  pronoun  which  has  a  eordictive 
form,  should  be  used  in  this  form;  as,  He  writes ; 
She  laughs ;  [/  speak]  (of  Washington)  (than 
who  ,  ,  )  (no  man  (of  his  time)  was 
greater)  (in  the  field.)  ^ .  ' 

Not  Him  writes;  not  her  laughs;   not  me  speaks;  not  than 
whom.* 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XIX. 

1.  Him  writes. 
The  use  of  him  for  he,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XIX. 
Rule ;  as,  He  writes. 


EXERCISES. 

1 .  Them  are  sick. 

2.  Us  are  well. 

8.  Ourselves  went. 

4.  Me  will  go. 

6.  (Her  being  absent,)  [she  was  sent  for.] 

*  Than  whom,  is  no  better  than,  him  is — no  better  than  whom  was. 

He,  or  who,  should  be  used  instead  of  wJiom.  If  who  is  used,  the  mono  given  by 
than  should  not  close  the  sentence ;  as,  I  saw  Johnson  daily,  (than  who  ,  ,  ) 
no  man  ever  treated  me  better. 

But,  if  he,  which  is  the  better  word,  should  be  used,  the  mono  given  by  than 
thnuld  close  the  period ;  as,  I  saw  Johnson  daily ;  and  no  man  ever  treated  me 
better  than  fit      ,      , 

24 


278  SYNTAX. 

6.  [Whom  spoke]  (to  toe  ?)     [Him  ,    ]  (and  her    ,    both.) 

7.  Whom  answered  them  ?     [Me    ,  ,     .] 

8.  Who  spilled  the  ink  ?     [Him    ,  ,     .] 

9.  Who  made  the  pen  ?     [Me     ,     ,  .] 

10.  Whom  wrote  the  letter?     [Her    ,     ,     .] 

11.  [Me  will  now  speak]  (of  Washington  Irving)  (than  whom 
,  )  (a  better  writer  cannot  be  found.) 

12.  [Him    ,     ]  (and  me  went.) 

13.  Thee  must  remain. 

14.  Thyself  must  go. 

15.  Herself  shall  see  it. 

16.  Themselves  are  here. 


Rule  XX. 

Duo  verbs  require  the  uncordiciive  form  of 
the  uncordiciive  pronouns  which  have  this  form ; 
as,  James  saw  us;  Whom  did  the  boys  call? 
not,  James  saw  we;  not,  Who  did  the  boys  call? 

REMARKS. 

In  deciding  whether  a,  final  verb  is  mono,  or  duo,  it  may 
be  of  use  to  the  learner  to  know  that  duo  verbs,  in  general, 
may  be  abridged,  deprived  of  their  duo  character  by  the 
use  of  some  form  of  Be.  And  that  he  may  derive  all  the 
advantage  from  this  fact,  which  a  familiar  acquaintance  with 
it  will  afford  him,  it  may  be  well  to  style  the  verbs  which 
are  abridged  of  their  natural  power  to  gnomefy  with  uncor- 
dictive  nouns,  and  pronouns, 

ABRIDGED  MONO  VERBS. 

The  abridged  mono  verb  is  one  that  is  naturally  duo; 
but  which,  by  the  precision  of  some  form  of  Be,  is  deprived 
of  its  natural  power  to  gnomefy  with  an  uncordictive  noun, 
or  pronoun ;  as,  A  letter  must  be  written ;  The  water  was 
drunk ;  The  work  has  been  done;  The  apple  is  eaten;  The 
girl  was  named  (         ,         ,         ,         )  (         ,  Jane ;) 

These  children  have  been  taught  (        ,  English  gram- 

mar.) 


SYNTAX. 


279 


Note. — When  the  verb  which  is  naturally  duo,  ends  in 
the  tenselcM  Be  form,  it  cannot  be  abridged  of  its  natural 
power  to  gnomefy  with  uncordictive  nouns,  and  pronouns ; 
as,  I  am  writtrw?  a  letter ;  Stephen  was  drinking  water ; 
John  will  soon  be  doing  the  work ;  Charles  is  eating  apples ; 
They  are  naimV^  the  girl  after  her  aunt ;  They  have  been 
teacup  English  grammar. 

THE  PRONOUNS  OP  BOTH  FORMS. 


Cordiciive  forms. 
I 

Thou 

He  ) 

She  J 

Who 
Whoever    ") 

Whosoever  >- 
Whoso        ) 

We 

Ye 

They 


Uncordictive  forms. 

Me 

Myself 

Thee 

Thyself 

Him 

Her 

Himself 

Herself 

Itself 

Whom 

Whomsoever 

(Us 

(  Ourselves 

Yourselves 
(Them 
{  Themselves 


Specimen  of  Correcting  uy  Rule  XX. 
1.  He  saw  /. 
The  use  of  J  for  me,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XX. 
Rule ;  as,  He  saw  me. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  Who  do  you  see  ? 

2.  Who  did  he  employ  ? 

3.  They  have  called  he. 

4.  [John  called  she,]  (he,)  (they,)  (thou,)  (and  I)  (to  the  house.) 

6.  He  is]  (a  pupil)  (who  it  is  impossible  to  teach.) 

C.  Who  would  you  suggest]  (as  a  fit  person)  (for  that  station.) 

7.  [It  is]  (I)  (who  they  wish  to  see.) 


280  SYNTAX. 


Rule  XXL 

Ambi  verbs  require  the  uncordictive  form  of 
the  pronouns  in  the  demimono,  which  have  this 
form ;  as,  Charles  told  Stephen  to  teach  them. 
Not,  they. 

It  is  not  easy  for  beginners  to  manage  constructions  like 
the  following : — 

1.  Who  do  people  say  that  I  am  ? 

2.  He  is  the  person  whom  they  say  Mr.  Johnson  taught. 

But  by  breaking  such  sentences  into  monos,  the  pupil, 
and  even  many  of  our  translators  of  the  Scriptures,  may  find 
some  aid  in  correcting  bad  English. 

The  trone  :  [Do  people  say  that  ?~\ 

Clads:  (Who)  (I am f) 

The  trone  :  [He  is~\ 

Clad   •   i  ^e  Person}  (wh°m  Mr.  Johnson  taught) 
SI    \Qhey  my.) 

Rule  XXII. 

Prepositions  require  the  uncordictive  form  of 
the  pronouns  which  have  this  form ;  as,  Of 
whom  did  he  speak  ?  John  called  for  us  ;  Charles 
took  that  man  for  me. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXII. 
1.  Of  who  did  you  speak  ? 
The  use  of  who,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXII. 
Rule ;  as,  Of  whom  did  you  speak  ? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  (Who  [do  you  speak]  to)  (Nancy?) 

2.  [He  called]  (for  Charles,)  (John,)  (and)  (I.) 

3.  (Who  [does  he  speak]  of?) 


SYNTAX.  281 

4.  (Who  [did  he  give  the  book]  tot) 

5.  [He  went]  (with  Jane,)  (Hester,)  (and)  (T.) 

C.  (From  he)  (that  is  needy)  [turn  thou  not  away.] 

7.  [They  took  them]  (     ,     we.)* 

8.  (In  order)  (for  me  to  be     ,      )  (      ,      he)  [there  must  be  a 
great  change.] 

Plenary — In  order  for  me  to  be  made  into  him,  there  must  be  a 
great  change. 

Rule  XXIIL 

If  the  pronoun  which  constitutes  the  predi- 
cate mono,  has  a  cordictive  form,  it  should  be 
used  in  its  cordictive  form ;  as,  [It  is]  (/;)  [It 
was]  (she;)  [It  is  said  to  be]  (he;)  [It  was] 
{they ;)  [I  am]  (he.) 


REMAKK. 

This  Rule  is  sustained  by  the  consideration  that  the  cor- 
dictive form  of  the  pronouns  which  indicate  their  cordictive 
power  by  their  form,  is  the  natural  state  of  the  words.  The 
cordictive  form  being  their  natural  state,  the  words,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  should  retain  this  form  in  every  instance 
where  there  is  no  other  word  which  requires  them  to  ex- 
change it  for  an  uncordictive  form.  No  word  except  a  duo 
verb,  and  a  preposition,  has  any  power  to  demand  this  ex- 
change— hence,  if  neither  of  these  words  belongs  to  the 
mono,  the  pronoun  should  retain  its  cordictive  form,  even 
while  it  surrenders  its  cordictive  power. 

In  conformity  to  the  doctrine  of  this  Rule,  we  say, 

1.  It  is  (they.)     Not,  it  is  them. 

•  I  thought  it  (    ,    him.)    Not  he. 

Thought  is  used  in  the  sense  of  took — and  for  is  understood  before  him. 

I  took  it  for  him. 

I  thought  it  to  be  (    ,    him.)    Not  he. 

Ibr  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  the  phrase,  in  the  character  of ;  as,  I  took 
him  for  a  gentleman ;  He  took  this  note  for  good  money ;  lie  was  taken  up  for 
dead. 

Unless  the  demimono  changes  the  tense  of  the  proposition  entirely,  for  is  under- 
stood when  the  demimono  is  expressed ;  as, 

I  took  him  to  be  a  gentleman. 

That  is,  I  took  him  for  a  gentleman  to  be» 
24* 


282  SYNTAX. 

2.  The  man  is  (/.)     Not,  is  me. 

3.  (Who)  do  people  say  I  am?     Not,  whom. 

4.  Do  people  say  (who)  (I  am?)    Not,  whom. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXIII. 

1.  [It  is]  {me.) 

The  use  of  me  for  7,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXIII. 
Rule ;  as,  [It  is]  (I.) 


EXERCISES. 


1.  [They  thought  that]  (it  was)  (me.) 

2.  [We  think  that]  (it  was)  (them.) 

3.  [Is  this]  (her  ?)     [It  is  not]  (her.) 

4.  [Was  that]  (him?)     [It  was]  (me.) 

5.  (Whom)  [is  the  teacher  ?]     [That  man  is]  (him.) 

6.  (By  whom)  [has   he   been   called]  (him?)     [He   has  been 
called]  (him)  (by  all.) 

7.  [It  was  not]  (me) — (it  was)  (him.) 

8.  'Be  composed] — (it  is)  (me.) 

9.  You  may  well  be  afraid] — (it  is)  (me.) 

10.  Who  made  the  disturbance?     [It  was]  (John,)  (and)  (him.) 

11.  [Was  it]  (him,)  (or    ,     ,     )  (her  ?) 


Rule  XXIV. 

No  word  which  is  an  adjective  without  ly^ 
should  have  this  inflection  where  the  word  is 
used  as  an  adjective  ;  as,  Henry's  conduct  was 
manful/^;  Her  demeanour  was  conformably  to 
the  rules  of  modest  behaviour;  Is  your  tea 
agreeab^  to  your  taste. 

Rule  XXV. 

An  adjective  of  the  uni  numerdiction,  re- 
quires a  noun,  or  pronoun  of  the  same  numer- 


SYNTAX.  283 

diction ;  as,  This  man.  (Not,  this  men)  Each 
book.  (Not,  each  books.)  That  pen.  (Not, 
that  pens.)  The  second  ,  and  third  edi- 
tion.    (Not,  the  second,  and  third  editions.) 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXV. 

1.  This  men. 

As  men  is  plus,  and  the  super  of  this,  it  is  a  violation  of  Rule 
XXV. 
Rule ;  as,  This  man. 

Note. — A  subadjective  of  the  uni  numerdiction  requires  a  prin- 
cipal of  the  same  numerdiction ;  as,  This  man's  sons ;  One  boy's 
books. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [This  men  went]  (to  the  city.) 

2.  [The  fourth,  (and  fifth  men)  were  lost.  J 

3.  [The  second,  (and  third  books)  are  his     ,     .] 

4.  [It  is  believed]  (that)  (the  tenth,  (and  eleventh  editions)  have 
been  greatly  improved.) — Kirkham's  Grammar. 


Rule  XXVI. 

An  adjective  of  the  plus  numerdiction,  re- 
quires a  noun,  or  pronoun  of  the  same  numer- 
diction; as,  These  men.  (Not,  these  man.) 
Those  pens.     (Not,  those  pen.) 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXVI. 

1.  Those  boy  must  be  quiet. 

As  boy  is  the  super  of  those,  and  uni,  it  is  a  violation  of  Rule 
XXVI. 

Rule ;  as,  Those  boy*  must  be  quiet. 

Note. — A  subadjective  of  the  plus  numerdiction  requires  its 
principal  to  be  of  the  same  numerdiction ;  as,  These  men's  sons ; 
Two  boys'  books. 


284  SYNTAX. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [I  have  bought  six  pound]  (of  butter.) 

2.  [He  purchased  four  cord]  (of  wood.) 

3.  The  cars  travel]  (sixteen  mile)  (in  an  hour.) 

4.  [Fifty  pound  (of  wheat)  contain  forty  pound]  (of  flour.) 

5.  [The  tree  is  (,,,)(,     a  hundred  foot)  high.] 


Rule  XXVII. 

When  there  is  no  comparison,  as  when  there 
is  but  one  thing,  or  but  one  collection  men- 
tioned, the  adjective  should  have  its  primitive 
form ;  as,  Red  bird ;  Red  birds ;  Good  man  ; 
Fine  schools. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  oy  Rule  XXVII. 
1.  A  redder  bird. 

As  there  is  but  one  thing  mentioned,  the  use  of  the  li-derivative 
ratiodiction  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXVII. 
Rule ;  as,  red  bird. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  A  better  man.  4.  A  brighter  light    > 

2.  A  larger  apple.  5.  The  older  person. 

3.  The  darkest  night.  G.  A  greater  mountain. 

Rule  XXVIII. 

When  but  two  things,  or  but  two  collections 
are  compared,*  the  adjective  should  have  the 
bi-derivative  ratiodiction ;  as,  This  bird  is  redder 
than  that ;  That  school  is  better  than  this. 


*  The  tri-derivative  ratiodiction  is  applicable  only  where  all  the  objects  men- 
tioned, fall  under  one  denomination.  That  is,  if  one  object  is  a  book,  all  must  bo 
books;  as,  This  is  the  thicket  book  of  the  seven  books. 

The  bi-derivative  ratiodiction  is  applicable  where  the  two  objects  mentioned,  fall 


SYNTAX.  285 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXVIII. 

1.  This  is  the  large**  man  of  the  two    ,     . 

As  there  are  but  two  men  mentioned,  the  use  of  the  tri-deriva- 
tive ratiodiction  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXVIII. 

Rulk ;  as,  This  is  the  larger  man  of  the  two    ,    . 

under  the  same,  or  under  different  denominations;  as,  This  pen  is  better  than  that 
pen ;  This  knife  is  sharper  than  that  razor. 

I  think  that  Mr.  Joseph  It.  Chandler  has  advanced  the  idea  that  the  trirderiva- 
tive  ratiodiction  may  be  applied  where  there  are  but  two  objects  mentioned ;  as, 
That  tree  is  the  higher  of  the  two;  Jane  is  the  oldest  of  the  two  girls. 

I  must  dissent  from  the  doctrine  of  this  position  altogether.  I  have  given  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  subject  of  the  tri-derivative  ratiodiction,  and  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  cannot  be  sustained  in  any  case. 

True,  the  world  has  started  with  this  form  of  expression— but  it  is  founded  in 
philological  error,  and  in  an  unphUosophical  principle.  He  who  examines  the  tri- 
derivative  form  of  expression,  will  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  it  is  very  analo- 
gous to  the  following  which  is  ridiculously  wrong : — 

1.  The  Bible  is  better  than  any  book. 

2.  Methuselah  was  older  than  any  man. 

1.  As  the  Bible  is  a  book,  and  as  the  Bible  is  better  than  any  book,  it  follows 
that  the  Bible  is  better  than  itself! 

2.  As  Methuselah  was  a  man,  and  as  he  was  older  than  any  man,  it  follows  that 
Methuselah  was  actually  older  than  himself! 

Let  it  be  presumed  that  there  are  three  books  before  us ;  and  that  the  Bible  is 
one  of  the  three.  Let  the  following  proposition  be  made  in  relation  to  the 
Bible:— 

1.  The  Bible  is  the  best  book  of  the  three. 

This  proposition  is  exactly  synonymous  with  the  following : — 

2.  The  Bible  is  better  than  any  one  of  the  three  books. 

Now,  as  the  Bible  is  one  of  the  three,  is  it  not  clearly  said  here  that  the  Bible 
is  better  than  itself  f 

The  Bible  is  the  best  book  of  the  three. 

That  is,  of  all  the  books  which  belong  to  this  triplicate  group  of  books,  the 
Bible  is  the  best.  Now,  if  the  Bible  actually  belongs  to  this  group  of  books,  is  it 
not  clearly  represented  to  be  better  than  itself? 

But  what  is  the  exact  idea  to  be  expressed?  It  is  that  the  Bible  is  better  than 
either  of  the  other  two  books. 

The  idea,  however,  which  is  expressed,  is  that  the  Bible  is  better  than  any  one 
of  the  three  books.  And,  as  the  Bible  is  one  of  the  three,  it  follows  that  the  super- 
lative degree,  as  they  call  it,  clearly  expresses  that  the  Bible  is  actually  better  than 
itself! 

She  is  the  handsomest  lady  in  the  room. 

Now,  if  the  lady  is  in  the  room,  she  is  handsomer  than  herself! 

Should  the  plausibility  of  my  position  have  a  tendency  to  invalidate  Mr.  Chan- 
dler's, that  the  superlative  degree  may  be  used  where  there  are  but  two  things,  let 
him  console  himself  with  the  reflection,  that  he  is  the  greater  grammarian  in  the 
world.    That  is,  he  is  greater  than  himself! 

That  I  may  be  clearly  understood  on  "the  subject  of  the  use  of  the  superlative 
degree  of  comparison,  it  may  be  well  to  say — 

1.  The  superlative  degree,  in  any  instance,  is  against  sound  philosophy. 

2.  The  superlative  degree  cannot  be  used  where  all  the  objects  do  not  fall  under 
the  same  denomination. 

3.  The  superlative  degree  can  be  used  where  there  are  but  two  things,  if  both 
fall  under  the  same  denomination,  with  as  much  philosophic  propriety  as  it  can 
where  there  are  three,  or  more. 

4.  Some  mono,  expressed,  or  understood,  which  begins  with  of,  must  invariably 
follow  the  superlative  degree ;  as,  She  is  the  handsomest  lady  in  the  room. 

That  is,  She  is  the  handsomest  lady  of  all  the  ladies  in  the  room. 


286  SYNTAX. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  This  hat  is  the  blackest    ,     of  the  two    ,     . 

2.  He  is  the  tallest    ,     of  the  two     ,     . 

3.  This    ,     is  the  best  school  of  the  two    ,     . 

4.  He  chose  the  last  of  the  two     ,     . 

6.  I  was  much  the  sickest  of  the  two     ,     . 

6.  Stephen  has  two  sisters,  the  oldest  of  whom  is  the  best 
reader. 

7.  The  oak,  and  the  willow  attempted  to  decide  which  was  the 
strongest. — Fable. 


Rule  XXIX. 

When  as  many  as  three  things,  or  three  col- 
lections are  compared,  they  must  all  be  of  the 
same  kind,  and  the  adjective  should  have  the 
tri-derivative  ratiodiction ;  as,  This  bird  is  the 
reddest  of  the  four ;  This  is  the  best  school  of 
the  three. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXIX. 

1.  I  am  the  taller  of  the  three  persons. 

As  there  are  three  persons  mentioned,  the  use  of  the  bi-dcrivative 
ratiodiction,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXIX. 

Rule :  as,  I  am  the  talks*  of  the  three. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  This  is  the  better  pen  of  the  three. 

2.  Which  is  the  better  reader,  Jane,  Hester,  or  Susan  ? 

3.  The  Indian  is  the  older     ,     of  the  four     ,     . 

4.  Blackhawk  was  the  more  sagacious    ,     of  any  Indian  in  his 
tribe. 

Rule  XXX. 

Pronouns  should  agree  in  numerdiction,  gene- 
diction,  and  reladiction,  with  the  nouns,  pronouns, 


SYNTAX.  287 

and  syllabaries  with  which  they  are  made 
synonymous  by  application;  as,  Mother  had 
seen  James  before  she  called  him. 


Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXX. 
1.  [I  offered  (John)  a  knife ;]  (but  they  would  not  take  it.) 

The  use  of  they  for  he,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXX. 

Rule ;  as,  [I  offered  (John)  a  knife;]  (but  he 

would  not  take  it.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [No  person  is  fully  satisfied]  (that)  (they  will  not  be  de- 
ceived. ) 

2.  [The  minds  (of  men)  are  active] — (it  must  have  something 
to  work)  (on.) 

3.  [Each  (of  them)  received  the  amount]  (to  which)  (they  were 
entitled)  (by  law.) 

4.  [I  gave  him  oats,]  (but  they  would  not  eat  it.) 

6.    'I  gave  the  horse  hay,]  (but  they  would  not  eat  them.) 

6.  :I  gave  the  horse  grass,]  (but  he  did  not  eat  them.) 

7.  [I  gave  the  ox  spires]  (of  grass,)  (but  he  did  not  eat  it.) 


Note  I. 

When,  for  brevity,  the  name  of  the  assemblage,  or  collec- 
tive body,  is  used  instead  of  the  name  of  its  constituent 
parts,  the  mind  dissolves  the  body  into  its  several  parts,  and 
the  pronoun  is  synonymous  with  the  name  of  these  parts ; 
as,  the  jury  will  remain  out  till  they  have  agreed  on  their 
verdict. 

They  is  not  synonymous  with  the  noun,  jury,  but  with  the 
word,  members,  implied.  The  jury  will  remain  out  till  its 
members  have  agreed  on  a  verdict. 

8.  [The  jury  will  continue  out  till]  (it  have  agreed)  (on  a  ver- 
dict.] 

9.  [The  council  was  not  unanimous;] (and  it  separated)  (with- 
out coming)  (to  any  determination.) 


288  SYNTAX. 

10.  [The  enemy  was  not  able  to  support  the  charge;]  and  he 
fled.) 

11.  [The  defendant's  counsel  had  a  difficult  task]  (imposed  upon 
it.) 

12.  [The  family  is  not  so  well  pleased]  (with  its  situation)  (as  it 
expected  to  be.) 

Note  IT. 

"When  the  name  of  the  assemblage,  or  collective  body,  is 
not  used  for  the  name  of  the  constituent  parts,  (members,) 
the  mind  does  not  dissolve  the  body  into  its  several  parts  : 
hence  the  pronoun  is  synonymous  with  the  true  name  of  the 
collective  body ;  as,  A  committee  was  appointed,  and  it  made 
a  report  upon  the  subject. 

13.  [The  crowd  is  so  great]  (that  I  cannot  get)  (through  them.) 

14.  [The  company  was  very  small]  (at  first ;)  (but  they  increased 
daily.) 

15.  [The  school  is  quite  large  now ;]  (and  they  will  grow  larger. ) 

16.  The  third  flock  (of  sheep)  is  fed  ;]  (but  they  are  not  watered.) 

17.  [The  committee  was  divided]  (in  sentiment ; )  (and  they  refer- 
red the  business)  (to  a  general  meeting.) 


Note  III. 

In  general,  it  is  the  exact  sense  that  decides  with  which 
one  of  two  principals,  a  pronoun  that  receives  its  numerdic- 
tion,  genediction,  and  reladiction  from  its  principal,  is 
synonymous;  as,  I  am  the  man  who  commands  you;  I  who 
command  you,  am  the  man. 

In  the  first,  who  is  synonymous  with  man.  In  the  second, 
who  is  synonymous  with  I. 

In  the  first,  who  is  uni,  masculin,  and  panta-theme.  In 
the  second,  who  is  uni,  masculin,  and  par-e-theme. 

am]  (the  man)  (who  command  you.) 

(a  person)  (who  adopt  that  sentiment;)  (and  main- 
tain " 

20.  [Thou  art]  (a  person)  (who  possessest  bright  parts ;)  (but 
who  hast  cultivated  them)  (very  little.) 

21.  [I  am]  (a  man)  (who  speak  but  seldom.) 

22.  [Thou  art]  (the  friend)  (that  hast  often  relieved  me;)  (and 
that  hast  not  deserted  me)  (in  time)  (of  peculiar  need.) 

23.  [I  am]  (the  boy)  (that  write  your  letters.) 

24.  [You  are]  (the  boy)  (who  pick  my  apples.) 


18.  [lam] 

19.  [lam] 
tin  it. ) 


SYNTAX. 


REMARKS. 


289 


The  following  remarks  are  worthy  of  a  careful  perusal — hence  the  learner 
cannot  do  better  than  to  memorize  them. 

"Master,  7"  have  brought  unto  thee  my  son  which  hath  a  dumb 
spirit." 

Which,  as  a  pronoun,  is  not  applicable  to  persons.  Which,  then, 
is  not  suited  to  the  word,  son.     That,  or  who,  should  be  used. 

Which  is  capable  of  being  either  of  the  uni,  or  plus,  pros-o-themet 
or  panta-theme,  masculin,  feminin,  ambi,  mute,  or  ne-o  genediction. 

Who  and  that,  are  applied  to  persons — which  to  things  ;  as,  The 
man  who  ;  The  boy  that ;  The  book  which. 

Whose  is  applied  both  to  persons,  and  things ;  as,  I  saw  the 
man  whose  arm  was  amputated ;  I  have  a  book  whose  pages  I  have 
never  read. 

That  is  preferred  to  who  after  an  adjective  of  the  to-derivative 
ratiodiction ;  as,  Washington  was  the  greatest  general  that  ever 
commanded  an  army.     [See  the  foot  note,  page  284.] 

When  the  noun  does  not  decide  the  gender,  the  pronoun  of  the 
masculin  genediction  is  preferred;  as,  I  saw  the  person  when  he 
left  his  seat.     Not,  I  saw  the  person  when  she  left  her  seat. 


Rule  XXXI. 

All  adjectives  made  from  pronouns,  whether 
by  derivation  or  application,  should  agree  in  nu- 
merdiction,  genediction,  and,  generally,  in  reladic- 
Hon,  with  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  apostrophic 
adjectives  with  which  they  are  made  synony- 
mous by  application ;  as,  John  saw  his  brother ; 
The  jury  will  remain  out  till  its  members  have 
agreed  on  a  verdict ;  Can  any  person  on  his  en- 
trance into  life,  be  fully  satisfied  that  he  will 
not  be  deceived?  Jane  came  here  when  she 
got  her  book, 

REMARKS. 

1 .  Tits,  in  the  first  sentence,  is  synonymous  with  John's.     [Not, 
John.] 
John  saw  John's  brother.     Not,  John  saw  John  brother. 
25 


290  SYNTAX. 

2.  Its  is  synonymous  with  jury's.  The  jury  will  remain  out  till 
injury's  members  have  agreed  on  a  verdict. 

3.  In  the  third  sentence,  his  is  synonymous  with  person's. 

4.  When  and  occurs,  their  may  be  used  instead  of  his,  its,  or  her  ; 
as,  I  saw  John,  and  Charles  get  their  books ;  The  book,  and  the 
pen  were  [was,  it  should  be]  moved  from  their  proper  place. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXXI. 

1.  The  boy  saw  their  brother. 

The  use  of  their  for  his,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXXI. 
Rule ;  as,  The  boy  saw  his  brother. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [Can  any  person  (on  their  entrance)  (into  life)  be  fully  secure] 
(     ,     that)  (he  shall  not  be  deceived  ?) 

2.  [The  minds  (of  men)  cannot  be  long]  (without  some  food) 
(which  will  nourish  the  activity)  (of  its  thoughts.) 

3.  [Each  (of  them)  (in  their  turn)  receives  the  money]  (to  which) 
(he  is  entitled.) 

4.  [Each  (of  the  boys)  took  their  own  book.] 

5.  'He  teaches  mathematics]  (with  all  their  branches.) 

6.  'Carry  the  scissors]  (to  its  place.) 

7.  'John,  (and  James)  have  found  his  books.] 

8.  Stephen,  (or  Joseph)  has  returned  their  copy.] 

9.  [I  have  examined  the  subject]  (of  alms)  (in  all  their  conse- 
quences.) 

10.  [When  (the  nation  complains,)  their  rulers  should  listen.] 

11.  [This   company  conducts  their  business]  (with  accuracy,) 
(and)  (despatch.) 

12.  [The  church  will  conduct  their  own  business.] 

13.  [The  family  is  very  well]  (with  the  exception)  (of  two)  (of 
their  members.) 

14.  [The  school  must  attend]  (to  their  writing  now.) 

15.  [This  class  has  lost  some]  (of  their  members. ) 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  Syntax?     [Page  257.] 

2.  Syntax  respects  what  ? 

3.  What  is  Rule  I.  ?     [Page  258.] 

4.  Can  you  give  Note  I.  under  Rule  1. 1 

5.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  II.  ?     [Page  260.] 

6.  WiD  you  give  me  the  substance  of  the  remark  under  Rule  IL  ? 


SYNTAX.  291 

7.  What  is  Rule  III.? 

8.  What  is  Rule  IV.  ? 

9.  Is  the  passed  tense  form  ever  the  Have  and  Be  form  ?  [Page 
262,] 

10.  What  is  Rule  V.  ? 

11.  What  is  Rule  VI.  ? 

12.  By  what  Rule  do  you  correct  the  error  in  the  following  sen- 
tence?—  ~, 

"  Thou  is  sick." 

13.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  VII.  ?     [Page  264.] 

14.  What  is  Rule  VIII.  ? 

15.  What  is  Rule  IX.  ? 

16.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  X.  ? 

17.  What  is  Rule  XI.  ? 

18.  Can  you  give  Rule  XII.  ? 

19.  What  is  Remark  L  under  Rule  XII.  ? 

20.  What  is  Remark  II.  under  Rule  XII.  ? 

21.  What  is  Rule  XIII.  ? 

22.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  Remark  which  precedes 
Rule  XIII.  ? 

23.  Canyon  give  the  exact  ideas  which  the  author  has  expressed 
and  illustrated  in  the  Remarks  which  follow  Rule  XIII.  ? 

24.  Is  it  good  sense  to  sayr  Socrates,  and  Plato  were  eminent 
philosophers  t 

25.  Do  you  not  see  that  this  form  of  expression  makes  a  plurality 
of  philosophers  out  of  each  ?     [See  the  Exegesis.] 

26.  What  is  Rule  XIV.  ? 

27.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  XV.  ? 

28.  Can  you  give  Rule  XVI.  ? 

29.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  Remarks  under  this  Rule  ? 
SO.  What  is  Rule  XVII.  ? 

31.  Is  there  an  error  in  the  following  sentence  ? — 

"  Thou  speakest  correct." 

32.  What  Rule  in  Syntax  does  this  error  violate  ? 

33.  What  is  Note  I.  under  Rule  XVII.  ? 

34.  What  is  Note  II.  under  Rule  XVII.  ? 

35.  What  is  Note  IIL  under  Rule  XVII.  ? 

36.  What  is  Rule  XVIII.  ? 

37.  What  is  Note  I.  under  Rule  XVIII.  ? 

38.  What  is  Note  II.  under  Rule  XVIIL  ? 

39.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  XIX.  ? 

40.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  foot  note  under  page  277? 

41.  Will  you  give  Rule  XX.  ? 

42.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  Remarks  under  this  Rule  ? 

43.  What  is  an  abridged,  mono  verb  ? 

44.  Can  you  supply  the  noetons  (implied  words)  which  are  neces- 


292  SYNTAX. 

sary  to  render  the  sentence,  employed  in  illustrating  this  definition, 
and  all  of  its  monos,  plenary  ? 

[The  girl  was  named]  (by  the  sign)  (of  Jane.)* 

45.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  Note  at  the  top  of  page  279  ? 

46.  What  is  the  cordictive  form  of  me  f 
4tl,  What  ig  the  uncordictive  form  of  I? 

[It  may  seem  to  many  that  the  pronouns  which  end  in 
self,  or  selves  are  cordictive. — He  is  taller  than  himself. 

[Rendered  plenary — [He  is  taller]  (than  he  is  tall)  (of 
himself. ) 

[That  is,  he  has  more  height  than  is  derived  from  him- 
self.] 

48.  What  is  Rule  XXI.  ? 

49.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  XXII.  ? 

50.  Will  you  give  me  an  explanation  of  the  principle  of  Rule 
XXIII.  ? 

51.  Is  it  proper  to  say,  [It  was]  (hers.) 

52.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  Remarks  under  Rule  XXIII.  ? 

53.  What  is  Rule  XXIV.  ? 

54.  What  is  Rule  XXV.  ? 

55.  What  is  Rule  XXVI.  ? 

56.  Is  there  any  thing  wrong  in  the  following  ? — 

These  men  is  good. 

57.  Is  the  following  good,  or  bad  English  ? 

"Henry  Hudson  was  by  birth  an  Englishman,  but 
had  been  for  some  time  previous  to,  and  at  the  time 
of  the  discovery,  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company." 

[As  previous  is  an  adverb  that  can  take  ly,  it  should  have 
the  ly  inflection;  as,  "and  had  been  employed  previously." 

Where  before  can  be  substituted  for  previous,  previous 
is  an  adverb,  and  it  should  end  in  ly ;  as,  "  and  had  been 
employed  before." 

But,  then,  if  before  is  used,  the  mono  which  follows  is 
cordictive;  as,  ("and  had  been  employed  before')  (the  dis- 
covery        ,  *       , ,        .) 

Whereas,  if  previously  is  used,  the  mono  which  follows  is 
imcord-ictive ;  as,  ("  and  had  been  employed  previously)  (to 
the  discovery/') 

*  Named  is  here  used  in  the  seuse  of  distinguished,  or  called.  [The  girl  was  dis- 
tinguishod]  (by  the  name)  (of  Jane.) 


SYNTAX.  293 

Before. 
[The  creation  (of  the  world)  had  taken  place  before]  (the 
flood        ,        ,         ) 

Previously. 

[The  creation  (of  the  world)  had  taken  place  previously] 
(to  the  coming)  (of  the  flood.) 

Before. 

[Man  had  fallen  before"]  (Christ  died)  (for  his  sins.) 

Previously. 

[Man  had  fallen  previously]  (to  the  death)  (of  Christ)  (for 
his  sins.) 

REMARKS. 

Was  the  author  of  this  sentence  present,  I  should  beg  him 
to  allow  me  to  make  a  few  alterations  in  it. 

"  Henry  Hudson  was  by  birth  an  Englishman. 

Why  should  the  predicate  mono,  an  Englishman,  be 
pushed  so  far  from  its  subject  ? 

Why  not  place  the  relative  parts  of  the  sentence  in  juxta- 
position : — 

"  Henry  Hudson  was  an  Englishman  by  birth,  but  had 
been  for  some  time  previously  to,  and  at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
covery, employed  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company.' ' 

"And  had  been  employed  previously  to,"  is  English.  But 
u  had  been  employed  at  the  time  of  die  discovery,"  is  some- 
thing for  which  I  have  no  name. 

Nor  does  it  seem  to  be  altogether  just  to  connect  the  plu- 
perfect with  the  imperfect  tense,  as  is  seen  in  the  junction 
of  the  following  italic  parts  : — 

"  Henry  Hudson  was  by  birth  an  Englishman,  but  had 
been  for  some  time  previously  to,  and  at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
covery, employed  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company." 

Was;  but  Jiad  been,  should  be  was;  but  he  had  been. 
25* 


294  SYNTAX. 

Employed  may  be  omitted ;  for  had  been  in  the  service,  is 
better  than,  had  been  employed  in  the  service. 
Was  should  be  employed  after  and,  and  before  at. 

1.  "Henry  Hudson  was  by  birth  an  Englishman;  but 
had  been  for  some  time  previously  to,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery,  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company." 

2.  "By  birth,  Henry  Hudson  was  an  Englishman ;  but, 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  he  was  in  the  service  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  where  he  had  been  engaged 
for  some  time  before  it." 

58.  What  is  Rule  XXVII.  ? 

59.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  XXVIII.  ? 

60.  Are  things,  or  their  attributes  compared  ? 

[The  attributes  are  compared — hence  the  propriety  of 
using  the  word  ratio — ra-she-o.  Ra-she-o-diction  is  the 
expression  of  the  ratio  which  one  quantity  of  a  certain 
quality,  has  to  another  quantity  of  the  same  quality  as 
found  in  a  different  thing ;  as,  This  bird  is  redder  than 
that.  Both  birds  have  redness ;  but  one  has  more  of 
this  attribute  than  the  other — hence  er  is  employed  to 
express  the  ratio,  or  the  proportion  of  the  redness  of  one 
bird  to  the  redness  of  the  other.] 

61.  What  is  Rule  XXIX.  ? 

62.  Will  you  repeat  Rule  XXX.  ? 


LESSON  II. 
Rule  XXXII. 


As  all  the  portion  of  time  within  which  the 
sentence  is  formed,  is  present,  whenever  this 
portion  of  time  is  to  be  designated,  the  verb 
should  have  the  present  tense ;  as,  Nathan  said 
unto  David,  Thou  art  the  man;  I  am;  Henry 
rides  out  daily ;  Virtue  is  commendable ;  These 


SYNTAX.  295 


merchants  purchase  their  goods  in  Boston ;  God 
mils  whatever  comes  to  pass;  Go  thou  to  school. 
[See  page  151.] 


REMARKS. 

1.  Thou  art  the  man. 

Although  Nathan  formed  this  sentence  long  ago,  the  verb 
has  the  present  tense.  The  verb  has  this  tense  to  indicate 
that  the  portion  of  time  in  "which  the  sentence  was  formed  by 
Nathan,  is  present  True,  the  exact  time  in  which  Nathan 
addressed  this  proposition  to  David  is  not  in  our  presence — 
but  it  was  in  Nathan's  presence  when  he  formed  the  sen- 
tence. And  as  art  represents  this  fact,  it  (art)  is  said  to 
have  the  present  tense. 

But  what  is  the  present  tense  ?  The  present  tense  is  the 
power  of  the  verb  to  bring  more,  or  less  time  into  the  pre- 
sence of  one  who  speaks,  or  writes. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  employ  the  language  of  him  who 
gives  an  account  of  the  intercourse  between  Nathan,  and 
David : — 

["  And  Nathan  said]  (unto  David,)  (Thou  art)  (the  man.") 
Now,  the  sentence,  Thou  art  tfie  man,  had  been  formed 
long  before  the  sentence,  "And  Nathan  said  unto  David;'1 
yet  said  is  passed;  but  art  is  present!  Why  is  this  so? 
Although  art  had  been  employed  by  Nathan  long  before 
said  was  used  by  his  historian,  still,  as  art  refers  to  the  time 
which  was  in  the  presence  of  Nathan  at  the  time  he  formed 
the  sentence,  it  is  of  the  present  tense ;  but  said  designates 
time  which  had  actually  passed  off — had  passed  out  of  the 
historian's  presence  before  he  formed  the  sentence  in  which 
said  ■  used.  To  what  passed  time  does  said  point?  Said 
points  to  the  very  time  to  which  art  points.  Said  points  to 
the  time  in  which  Nathan  formed  his  sentence : —  * 

Thou  art  the  man. 

Here,  then,  are  two  verbs  (said,  art)  which  point  to  the 
same  time ;  yet  one  has  the  present,  the  other  the  passed 
tense  !     The  solution  is  this : — In  relation  to  Nathan,  this 


296  SYNTAX. 

time  is  present ;  but  in  relation  to  his  historian,  this  time  is 
passed.  In  other  phrase,  it  was  in  the  presence  of  the  one ;  but 
it  had  passed  out  of  the  presence  of  the  other.  If,  then,  the 
1  same  time  may  be  both  present,  and  passed,  how  is  it  that 
the  old  doctrine,  that  the  character  of  the  time  designated, 
decides  the  tense  of  the  verb,  is  to  be  sustained  ? 

The  present  tense  may  be  called  the  speaking  tense.  That 
is,  the  tense  that  designates  the  time  within  which  the  sen- 
tence is  formed^  or  uttered. 


Note  I. 

Where  it  may  be  fairly  presumed  that  the  person,  or 
thing  possesses  the  same  name,  the  same  being,  or  the 
identity,  which  he,  or  it  possessed  when  first  seen,  the  verb 
should  have  the  present  tense ;  as,  What  is  the  name  of  him 
who  called  on  us  last  week  ?     [Not,  what  was  the  name.] 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Note  I.  under  Rule  XXXII. 

1.  Father,  there  has  been  a  gentleman  here  this  morning  to  see  yon. 
What  was  his  name,  my  child  ? 

The  nse  of  the  passed  tense,  was,  for  the  present,  is,  is  a  violation 
of  Note  I. 

Note ;  as,  What  is  his  name  ? 


EXERCISES. 

1.  (Who)  [was  that  lad]  (that  was  here  ?) 

2.  [Was  the  man's  name]  (Peter,)  (that  has  called)  (this  morn- 
ing?) 

3.  [I  objected]  (to  the  use)  (of  one  word,)  (and  he  asked  what 
word)  (it  was.) 

4.  [I  replied  that]  (it  was  the  word)  (obnoxious.) 

5.  (What  friend)  [was  it]  (to  whom)  (you  alluded  ?) 

6.  [It  was]  (my  friend)  (Mr.  Jones.) 

7.  (What  story)  [was  it]  (that  you  were  reading  ?) 

8.  [He  took  the  position]  (that)  (brandy  always  made  people 
drunk.) 

9.  (Who)  [was  he]  (that  came  to  see  you  (a  few  hours)  ago.) 

10.  [It  was]  (my  brother)  (     ,     ,     )  (John.) 

11.  [Was  he  not]  (the  man)  (that  was  a  candidate)  (for  our  next 
governor  ?)     He  was  not. 

12.  [The  Doctor  said  that]  (fever  always  produced  thirst.) 


SYNTAX.  297 


What  day  will  to-morrow  be  ? 


The  diversity  of  opinion  among  teachers,  respecting  the  tense  which  the  verb  in 
this,  and  similar  instances,  should  have,  seems  to  require  an  observation,  or  two. 

1.  What  day  is  to-morrow  ?    What  day  will  to-morrow  be? 

That  the  verb  should  have  the  present  tense,  is  obvious  from  the  consideration 
that  he  who  asks  the  question,  means  to  inquire  which  of  the  seven  names  that 
are  applied  to  the  different  days  in  the  week,  is  applied  to  that  portion  which  fol- 
lows the  day  on  which  he  puts  this  question. 

He  intends  to  ask  nothing  but  this : — 

By  what  name  have  men  agreed  to  designate  that  portion  of  time  which  follows 
this  day? 

1.  To-morrow  is  Thursday.    2.  To-morrow  will  be  Thursday. 

That  is,  that  portion  of  time  which  follows  Wednesday,  is  called  Thursday. 
That  day  which  follows  Wednesday,  is  already,  is  now  named  Tlmrsday. 


Note  II. 

When  the  name  is  established,  the  thing  which  certainly, 
and  punctually  appears  under  a  uniform  character,  at  a  given 
time,  may  be  called  by  its  established  name,  in  the  present 
time,  even  before  the  thing  appears  in  actual  being;  as,  The 
day  after  Sunday  is  Monday. 


Rule  XXXILT. 

When  the  sentence  is  formed  within  the  ex- 
pressed, or  implied  period  of  recalled  present 
time,  the  verb  should  have  the  re-f  resent  tense ; 
as,  I  have  written  a  letter  to-day;  I  have  never 
drunk  better  water ;  I  have  seen  him  twice  in 
my  life.     [See  pages  149,  150.] 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXXIII. 
[I  wrote]  (to  my  brother)  (to-day.) 
The  pasted  tense  of  write,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXXIII. 
Rule ;  as,  [I  have  written]  (to  my  brother)  (to- 
day.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [I  saw  my  uncle  Thomas]  (in  market)  (this  morning.) 

2.  [Mr.  Jones  made  a  thousand  dollars]  (this  year.) 

3.  (John,) [did  you  see  the  book  yet?] 


298  SYNTAX. 

Did  you  see  your  sister  since]  (you  have  been)  (in  Boston?) 


4. 

5.  [I  purchased  this  book]  (this  evening.) 

6. 

7. 


I  spoke  (with  my  brother)  since]  (I  came  out.) 

Will  you  go,]  (James?)     [No — ]  [I  concluded  to  remain] 


(at  home.) 

Rule  XXXIV. 

When  the  time  has  all  passed  off  before  the 
sentence  is  formed,  the  verb  should  have  the 
passed  tense ;  as,  I  wrote  a  letter  yesterday ;  I 
never  drank  better  water  while  I  was  in  Europe ; 
I  saw  Washington  twice  in  his  life. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXXIV. 

I  have  made  out  very  well  last  year. 
The  re-present  tense,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXXIV. 
Rule ;  as,  I  made  out  very  well  last  year. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  He  has  seen  her  last  week  in  Philadelphia. 

2.  I  have  bought  this  pencil  last  year. 

3.  Henry  has  gone  to  school,  last  week. 

4.  He  hath  been  in  Maine,  last  year. 

5.  She  has  written  to  my  brother  a  number  of  times  while  I  was 
in  Boston. 

6.  While  I  was  writing  this  work,  I  have  prepared  another  for 
the  press. 

Rule  XXXV. 

When  the  time  has  all  passed  off  before  the 
sentence  is  formed,  and  one  event  takes  place 
before  another,  the  verb  which  expresses  the  prior 
event,  should  have  the  prior  passed  tense ;  as, 

1.  [They  had  dined  before]  (I  arrived.) 

2.  [I  had  concluded  to  return  before]  (I  got  my  father's 
letter.) 

3.  [God  must  have  known  the  fate]  (of  man)  (before  he 
created  him.) 


SYNTAX.  299 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXXV. 

I  went  before  I  got  the  letter. 

The  passed  tense  of  go,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XXXV. 
Rule ;  as,  I  had  gone  before  I  got  the  letter. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  Joseph  wrote  his  copies  before  school  commenced. 

2.  Jane  learned  her  lesson  before  she  went  to  school. 

3.  God  created  the  earth  before  he  formed  man. 

4.  I  was  in  business  a  number  of  years  before  my  brother's 
return. 

6.  They  saw  me  twice  at  my  own  house  before  I  called  on  them. 

6.  He  finished  his  work  before  I  came  in. 

7.  I  was  in  Reading  before  I  went  to  the  city. 

8.  I  was  in  Pennsylvania     ,      eighteen  months  before  I  saw 
you. 

9.  He  had  the  money  two  days  before  I  called  for  it. 

10.  We  knew  the  person  before  he  became  our  friend. 

11.  I  saw  the  man  before  he  came  to  the  city. 


Rule  XXXVI. 

When  the  ne-demimono  is  founded  upon  see- 
ing, a  hope,  command,  desire,  intention,  or  a  duty, 
the  verb  in  the  demimono  should  have  the  pre- 
sent tense ;  as, 

1.  I  saw  him         ,         drink  the  wine. 

2.  They  hoped  to  get  a  letter. 

3.  They  bade  him        ,        return  the  books. 

4.  We  desired  to  find  him  at  home. 

5.  They  meant  to  write  last  week. 

6.  He  ought  to  come  soon. 

Note. — This  rule  is  clear,  because  the  passed  tense  would  denote 
that  whatever  is  hoped  for,  commanded,  desired,  or  intended,  had 
been  realized  before  even  the  existence  of  the  hope,  command, 
desire,  or  intention. 


300  SYNTAX. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXXVI. 

I  intended  to  have  written  to  you  last  week. 

As  this  ne-demimono  is  founded  upon  an  intention,  write  should 
have  the  present  tense. 
Rule ;  as,  I  intended  to  write  to  you. 


EXERCISES. 
•. 

1.  They  meant  to  have  written  last  Monday. 

2.  We  desired  to  have  found  him  at  home. 

3.  The  teacher  told  us  to  have  done  these  sums. 

4.  They  intended  to  have  returned. 

5.  We  hoped  to  have  seen  all  the  family  happy. 

6.  They  desired  us  to  have  gone  home  with  them. 

7.  They  saw  us  to  have  gone  to  school. 

8.  He  saw  me  to  have  eat  my  dinner. 


Rule  XXXVII. 

When  the  event  expressed  in  the  demimono 
happens  before  that  expressed  in  the  we-demi- 
mono,  the  verb  in  the  demimono  should  have 
the  prior  passed  tense ;  as,  I  was  delighted  to 
have  seen  my  brother;  He  was  glad  to  have 
paid  the  debt. 

Here  it  is  clear  that  the  seeing  had  taken  place  before  the 
delight  was  felt ;  as,  He  was  delighted  on  Saturday  to  have 
seen  his  brother  on  Friday. 

It  is  also  obvious  that  the  payment  had  been  made  before 
the  gladness  was  felt. 


REMARK. 

Before  leaving  this  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  demimono,  it 
may  be  well  enough  just  to  say  that  the  very  common,  and 
highly  authorized  expression,  he  "ought  to  have  written,"  is 
no  better  than  "he  hoped  to  have  seen  his  son." 


SYNTAX.  301 

The  word  ought  denotes  duty — written  denotes  an  action — 
and  have  indicates  that  he  had  done  the  action  even  before 
the  duty  is  represented  to  exist !  He  should  have  written, 
is  good. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  oy  Rule  XXXVII. 

I  was  much  pleased  yesterday  to  pay  the  debt    ,    the  day     , 
,     ,~  before. 

As  the  paying  had  taken  place  before  the  pleasure  was  felt,  pay 
Ehould  have  the  prior  passed  tense. 

Rule ;  as,  I  was  much  pleased  yesterday  to  have 

paid  the  debt  the  day  before. 


EXERCISES.  .      . 

1.  I  was  very  sorry  last  evening  to  see  you  the  night    ,    ,    , 
before. 

2.  I  have  been  happy  to-day  to  see  you  at  church    ,    last  Sab- 
bath. 

3.  He  was  delighted  on  Saturday  to  see  his  brother  on  Friday. 

4.  I  was  much  pleased    ,    yesterday  to  see  you  the  day    ,     , 
,     before,  at  my  house.* 

5.  I  am  really  sorry  to  see  you  in  so  much  trouble,       ,      last 
week. 

6.  William  was  hurt  on  Thursday  to  see  Henry  misbehave    , 
the  day    ,     ,     ,     before. 

7.  He  was  much  pleased  on  Monday  to  see  his  sister  at  his  church, 
on  Sunday. 

8.  He  was  much  pleased  on  Wednesday  to  find  her  in  good  health 
the  day    ,  ,     before. 


Rule  XXXVIH. 

When  the  events  in  both  parts  of  the  mono, 
happen  at  the  same  time,  both  parts  should  have 
the  present,  or  the  ne-demi?nono  part,  the  passed 
tense;  as,  I  am  delighted  to  see  you;  I  was 
delighted  to  see  you  last  evening  at  my  house. 

*  I  was  much  pleased  on  yesterday  to  see  you  at  my  house,  on  the  day  which 
had  com*  before  yesterday  came. 

2G 


302  SYNTAX. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Kule  XXXVIII. 
I  was  delighted  to  have  seen  you  last  evening  at  my  house. 
As  both  events  happened  at  the  same  time,  the  demimono  should 
have  the  present  tense. 

Rule ;  as,  I  was  delighted  to  see  you  last  evening 

at  my  house. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  I  was  pleased  yesterday  to  have  seen  you. 

2.  I  hope  to  have  got  a  letter  to-day. 

3.  I  saw  you  to  have  written  the  letter. 

4.  I  am  glad  to  have  had  the  money  by  me  at  this  time. 

5.  I  went  to  the  city  to  have  seen  the  Philadelphia  Museum. 


Rule  XXXIX. 

When  the  whole  of  the  time  alluded  to  in  the 
mono,  falls  after  the  formation  of  the  sentence, 
the  verb  should  have  the  future  tense ;  as,  I 
shall  dine  at  two  o'clock;  I  will  see  you  again; 
[We  shall  see  our  friends  when]  (the  stage  re- 
turns.) 

REMARKS. 

When  the  stage  returns,  we  shall  see  our  friends. 

This  form  of  expression  is  common.  But  it  is  not  cor- 
rect. It  should  be — When  the  stage  shall  have  returned, 
we  shall  see  our  friends. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XXXIX. 
Henry  is  coming    ,     to-morrow. 
As  all  the  time  alluded  to  by  the  verb,  falls  after  the  formation 
of  the  sentence,  the  future  tense  should  be  used. 
Rule ;  as,  Henry  will  come  on  to-morrow. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  There  is  no  preaching  at  our  church  to-morrow. 

2.  He  sees  me  next  week  on  this  business. 

3.  James,  is  there  any  lecturing  in  the  city    ,     next  week? 

4.  There  is  a  public  sale  at  that  house  next  Christmas. 


SYNTAX.  303 

Rule  XL. 

When  one  portion  of  future  time  is  represented 
as  prior  to  another,  the  verb  which  expresses  the 
event  that  happens  in  the  prior  portion,  should 
have  the  prior  future  tense ;  as,  When  the  stage 
shall  have  returned,  we  shall  see  our  friends ; 
We  shall  have  dined  by  two  o'clock ;  I  shall  have 
seen  the  merchant  before  you  will  return. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XL. 
We  shall  dine  by  two  o'clock. 

As  dine  expresses  the  event  that  is  to  happen  in  the  prior  portion 
of  time,  the  mono,  we  shall  dine,  should  have  the  prior  future  tense. 
Bulb ;  as,  We  shall  have  dined  by  two  o'clock. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  We  shall  get  some  news  by  eleven  o'clock. 

2.  James  will  write  you  before  next  week    ,     ,     . 

3.  He  will  send  you  the  book  before  you  want  it. 

4.  John  will  call  before  you  set  out  for  Boston. 

5.  You  shall  see  me  again  by  ten  o'clock. 

6.  When  the  mail  returns  we  shall  get  some  news.* 

7.  He  will  come  by  four  o'clock      ,      to-morrow. 

8.  I  shall  see  the  man  before  you  return. 


REMARKS. 

The  obvious  impropriety  of  promising  in  affirmative  monos  of  the 
prior  future  tense,  makes  it  improper  to  use  will  with  a  pronoun 
of  the  par-e-theme  reladiction,  or  shall  with  one  of  the  pros-o-theme, 
or  the  panta-theme  reladiction  in  this  tense ;  as, 

1.  I  will  have  dined  by  two  o'clock.     (Bad.) 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  arrived  by  seven  o'clock.     (Bad.) 

3.  They  shall  have  come  before  you  return.     (Bad.) 

*  The  tronc  is  correct,  but  the  conlictive  clad  is  not. 


804  SYNTAX. 

As  foretelling  is  consistent  in  these  cases,  shall  should  be  used 
with  /,  and  will  with  thou,  and  they,  and  cordicbive  nouns ;  as, 

1.  I  shall  have  dined  by  two  o'clock. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  arrived  by  seven  o'clock. 

3.  They  will  have  come  before  you  return. 

Shall,  Will. 

1.  In  the  par-e-theme  reladiction,  shall  foretells  only. 

2.  In  the  pros-o-theme,  and  in  the  panta-theme  reladiction,  shall 
promises,  threatens,  or  commands. 

3.  In  the  par-e-theme  reladiction,  will  expresses  a  promise,  or  a 
resolve. 

4.  In  the  pros-o-theme,  and  in  the  panta-theme  reladiction,  will 
generally  foretells. 

EXERCISES, 
Under  the  Remark  which  is  Supplemental  to  Rule  XL. 

1.  I  will  have  dined  by  two  o'clock. 

2.  I  will  have  gone  to  school  before  ten  o'clock     ,     ,     . 

3.  Thou  shalt  have  arrived  by  seven  o'clock. 

4.  Thou  shalt  have  come  before  I  want  you. 

5.  He  shall  have  gone  by  noon. 

6.  They  shall  have  come  before  you  return. 


REMARKS. 

Tt  may  be  well  to  say  here  that  the  monos  in  which  the  tenseless 
Be  form  is  used  causativelg,  have  no  tense  in  themselves ;  as,  (lie 
being)  (a  wise  man)  [we  give  heed]  (to  his  counsel.) 

1.  Give,  in  the  trone,  is  the  tense  of  the  mono,  he  being — and, 
SiSgive  is  present,  he  being  is  likewise  present. 

2.  (He  being)  (a  wise  man)  [we  gave  heed]  (to  his  counsel.) 
Here,  he  being  is  of  the  passed  tense.    This  tense  is  found  in  gave, 

in  the  trone. 

OBSERVATION. 

When  what  is  said  of  a  subject  is  true  at  all  times,  the 
verb  should  have  the  present  tense;  as,  Virtue  is  commend- 
able ;  Honesty  is  always  the  better  policy. 


SYNTAX.  305 

LESSON  III. 
A   SUITABLENESS   OP   ONE   WORD   TO   ANOTHER. 

A  suitableness  of  one  word  to  another,  is  the  adaptation 
of  the  shade  of  thought,  expressed  by  the  subordinate  word 
to  the  shade  of  thought  expressed  by  the  super. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  The  horses  run.     (Good.) 

2.  Water  runs.     (Bad.) 

3.  Henry  has  arrived  at  Boston.     (Good.) 

4.  Henry  has  arrived  to  Boston.     (Bad.) 

5.  Let  my  right  hand  forget  her  cunning.     (Bad.) 

6.  This  man  has  a  strong  voice.     (Good.) 

7.  This  man  has  a  beautiful  voice.     (Bad.) 

8.  "  The  Lord  hath  heard  the  voice  of  my  weeping." 
(Bad.) 

9.  The  Lord  hath  heard  my  weeping.     (Good.) 

10.  "  And  I  will  cut  down  your  images,  and  cast  your 
carcasses  upon  the  carcasses  of  your  idols/'     (Bad.) 

11.  u  Enoch  was  translated  that  he  should  not  see  death." 
(Bad.) 

12.  "  The  sword  shall  devour,  and  shall  be  satiate,  and 
made  drunk  with  their  blood"     (Bad.) 

13.  "  The  obstinacy  in  Essex,  proceeded  from  his  jealousy 
that  when  the  King  had  got  him,  he  would  take  revenge 
upon  him.,, — Lord  Clarendon.     (Bad.) 

REMARKS. 

1.  Strictly  speaking,  that  which  has  no  feet,  cannot  be  said  to 
run.  Water  has  no  feet — hence  water,  and  run,  are  not  suited  one 
to  the  other. 

2.  Arrived  implies  that  the  act  is  to  be  soon  continued,  changed, 
or  inverted.  And,  as  at  expresses  nothing  to  the  contrary,  this 
preposition  is  suited  to  arrived. 

3.  To  implies  a  finishing,  a  termination  of  the  action — hence  to 
is  not  suited  to  arrived.  He  arrived  at  Boston — but,  then,  he  is 
soon  to  leave  Boston  for  another  place. 

2G* 


30G  SYNTAX. 

He  has  come  to  Boston. 

The  word,  come,  does  not  intimate  that  he  is  to  leave  Boston. 
If  come  expresses  any  thing  besides  the  mere  action,  it  favours  the 
idea  expressed  by  to,  which  is  that  the  action  is  finished — not  to  be 
resumed. 

5.  "Let  my  right  hand  forget  her  cunning." 

Forget  is  an  action  Of  the  mind.  But  the  hand  is  not  only  not 
the  mind,  but  it  is  a  member  which  has  no  mind.  The  hand  not 
only  has  no  mind,  but  it  has  nothing  which  resembles  mind.  Handy 
and  forget,  then,  are  not  adapted  one  to  the  other. 

6.  "  This  man  has  a  strong  voice." 
That  a  voice  has  strength  is  obvious. 

"  Who  in  the  days  of  his  flesh,  when  he  offered  up  prayers 
with  strong  crying,  and  tears." 

7.  "  This  man  has  a  beautiful  voice." 

Beauty  is  a  property  which  comes  to  the  mind  through  the  medium 
of  the  eye.  Voice  comes  to  the  mind  through  the  medium  of  the 
ear.  Beauty,  however,  is  something  which  we  never  hear — we  see 
beauty. 

A  voice  may  be  charming,  delightful,  pleasing,  strong,  feeble,  weak, 
acute,  shrill,  &c. 

That  there  is  a  property  in  voice,  similar  in  its  effects  upon  the 
mind,  to  the  beauty  of  an  object,  is  obvious.  This  property,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  denominated  beautiful,  but  delightful,  melodious. 

"  And  music  more  melodious  than  the  spheres." — -Bryden. 

8.  "  The  Lord  hath  heard  the  voice  of  my  weeping." 

That  voice,  and  weeping  are  ill  suited  one  to  the  other,  is  obvi- 
ous from  the  consideration  that  weeping  does  not  express  any  thing 
which  has  the  organs  of  articulation.  How  can  the  weeping  utter  a 
voice  ? 

The  Lord  hath  heard  my  weeping,  is  correct. 

11.  "  Enoch  was  translated  that  he  should  not  see  death." 

See  implies  that  whatever  is  represented  to  be  seen,  is  visible ; 
but  death  implies  that  the  state  which  it  expresses,  is-  invisible. 
Hence  the  shade  of  the  thought  denoted  by  see,  is  incongruous  with 
the  shade  of  the  thought  expressed  by  death. 

In  the  following,  see  is  properly  used : — 

We  have  seen  the  land,  and,  behold,  it  is  very  good. — 
Judges  xviii. 

But,  in  the  following,  see  is  not  well  used  : — £ 

I  turned  to  see  the  voice  that  spoke  with  me. — Rev.  i. 

I  see  another  laiv  in  my  members. — Rom.  vii. 


SYNTAX.  307 

12.  "  The  sword  shall  devour,  and  shall  be  satiate,  and 
be  made  drunk  with  their  blood." 

How  can  a  sword,  whioh  is  both  lifeless,  and  toothless,  devour? 
And,  as  a  sword  has  no  stomach,  nor  any  thing  analogous  to  a 
stomach,  how  can  it  be  filled  to  satiety?  Again,  as  to  make  drunk, 
is  to  stupefy  by  the  action  of  spirits  on  the  stomach,  and  brain,  how 
can  a  sword,  which  has  neither  of  these  organs,  be  made  drunk? 

The  word,  drunk,  implies,  that  that  which  makes  one  drunk,  has 
some  stupefying  power  which  is  exerted  upon  him  who  is  made 
drunk, — but  has  blood  any  stupefying  power  ? 

13.  "  The  obstinacy  in  Essex,  proceeded  from  his  jealousy, 
that  when  the  Kiraj  had  got  him,  he  would  take  revenge 
upon  him." 

As  jealousy  exists  between  equals  only,  and  as  Essex,  a  mere 
subject,  was  not  the  King's  equal,  jealousy  should  give  place  to  sus- 
picion. 

10.  "  And  I  will  cut  down  your  images,  and  cast  your 
carcasses  upon  the  carcasses  of  your  idols.  \ 

This  sentence  is  introduced,  not  to  illustrate  the  fitness  of  one 
word  in  respect  to  another — nor  is  it  here  employed  to  show  the 
want  of  a  suitableness  of  one  word  in  respect  to  another.  It  is 
employed  to  furnish  an  occasion  for  showing  that  the  want  of  a 
suitableness  of  one  word  to  another,  is  not  the  only  particular  in 
which  error  may  be  committed  in  the  use  of  language.  The  seve- 
ral words  of  this  sentence  are  perfectly  adapted  to  each  other : — 

"  And  I  will  cut  down  your  images,  and  cast  your  car- 
casses upon  the  carcasses  of  your  idols." 

The  impropriety  lies  in  applying  the  word,  carcasses,  to  mere 
pieces  of  images. 

This  impropriety  Will  appear  more  clear  from  the  fact  that  tin's 
word  is  made  from  caro,  and  casa  vita,  flesh  without  life.  The 
word,  carcass,  is  employed  to  designate  the  body  as  a  lifeless  lump. 

From  this  use  the  word  has  come  to  be  applied  to  the  decaying 
remains  of  a  bulky  thing;  as,  This  is  the  carcass  of  the  ship,  John 
Adams. 

It  has  also  come  to  be  applied  to  the  mere  frame  of  a  thing 
which  is  unfinished. 

But  the  word,  carcass,  should  never  be  applied  to  the  decomposed 
parts  of  an  animal  body — nor  should  it  be  applied  to  the  various 
parts  into  which  a  frame  of  a  boat,  or  a  ship,  may  be  divided. 
The  parts  must  be  together  in  the  form  of  a  frame — otherwise  the 
word,  carcass,  cannot  be  applied. 

"  I  will  cut  down  your  images,  and  east  your  carcasses 
upon  the  carcasses  of  your  idols." 


o08  SYNTAX. 

That  is,  I  will  hew  dozen,  cut  into  pieces,  your  images ;  and 
I  will  then  cast  your  own  bodies  upon  the  bodies  of  these 
images,  or  idols.  The  error  here  does  not  consist  in  a  want  of 
suitableness  of  one  word  to  another,  but  in  a  want  of  a  suitable- 
ness of  the  word,  carcasses,  to  the  things  to  which  it  is  applied. 

"  I  will  cut  down  your  images,  and  cast  your  carcasses 
upon  the  fragments  of  your  idols/' 

It  may  also  be  doubted  whether  the  word,  carcasses,  is  properly 
applied  in  the  first  part  of  this  sentence.  The  word  means  a  life- 
less lump  of  flesh.  But,  as  the  author  of  the  sentence  intended  to 
say  to  these  idolaters  that  he  considered  them  dead  to  every  thing 
which  is  right,  there  is  a  degree  of  propriety  in  calling  them  car- 
casses. 

[This,  and  similar  errors  fall  under  Syn-de-col-o-gy,  which  is 
the  theme  of  Book  III.] 

As  a  further  exemplification  of  this  particular  part  of  Syntax, 
it  may  be  well  enough  to  give  the  different  shades  of  thought, 
which  are  expressed  by  words  that  are  nearly  synonymous. 

Amend,  Correct)  Reform,  Rectify,  Emend,  Improve,  Mend, 
and  Better. 

Although  there  may  not  be  any  two  words  which  express  idea3 
that  are  exactly  alike  in  all  their  shades;  yet  there  are  many 
which  express  thoughts  that  are  nearly  alike  in  all  respects. 

For  example,  amend,  correct,  reform,  rectify,  emend,  improve,  mend, 
and  better,  have  the  same  general  import,  though  not  the  same  pai-- 
ticular  one.  These  words  all  imply  some  change  for  the  better. 
But,  then,  some  of  them  denote  the  act  of  making  better  by  dimi- 
nishing ■evil ;  the  others  denote  this  act  by  increasing  good.  Amend, 
correct,  rectify,  and  emend,  denote  acts  which  tend  to  diminish  evil. 
Improve,  reform,  and  better,  denote  acts  which  increase  good.  These 
seven  words,  then,  from  their  manner  of  signification,  divide  them- 
selves into  two  classes,  namely,  affirmative,  and  negative.  The 
affirmative  class  denotes  the  increase  of  good.  The  negative,  the 
decrease  of  evil.  Now  the  individuals  of  either  class  differ  as 
much  from  each  other  as  the  classes  do  from  one  another. 

Amend,  Latin  amendo,  from  amenda,  a  fault  in  transcribing,  de- 
notes the  act  which  removes  this  fault. 

Correct,  Latin  correctus,  participle  of  corrigo,  compounded  of  con, 
and  rego,  denotes  the  act  of  setting  in  order. 

lleform,  compounded  of  re  and  form,  means  to  form  anew,  or  put 
into  a  new  form. 

Rectify,  Latin  rectifico,  compounded  of  rectus,  smdfacio,  signifies 
to  make,  or  put  aright. 

Emend,  Latin  emendo,  to  correct. 

Improve,  Latin  in,  and  probo,  to  prove,  or  try,  means  to  make  any 
thing  good,  or  better,  by  trials,  or  experiments. 


SYNTAX.  309 

The  following  examples  show  the  manner  in  which  these  words 
ire  applied : — 

"This  man  amended  his  private  conduct,  corrected  his 
public  errors,  rectified  all  his  mistakes,  reformed  his  life, 
improved  his  mind,  and  Lettered  the  condition  of  his 
family." 

Hence  it  is  seen  that  we  amend  conduct,  correct  errors,  rectify  mis- 
takes, reform  our  lives,  improve  the  mind,  and  better  conditions. 

To  say,  then,  that  he  has  corrected  his  conduct,  or  amended  his 
errors,  would  be  to  commit  a  mistake  in  the  use  of  these  words, 
which  should  be  rectified. 


REMARKS. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  accomplishment  which  becomes  the  lady,  or 
the  gentleman,  more  than  the  faculty  of  despatch,  ease,  and  accu- 
racy in  colloquial  intercourse.  And  while  there  are  few  better 
calculated  to  grace  the  scholar,  the  philosopher,  or  the  profes- 
sional man,  there  is  no  secondary  one  of  more  importance  to  the 
teacher,  and  parent.  As  parents,  and  teachers  set  examples 
which  the  child  generally  follows,  they  must  reform,  or  incompe- 
tency in  the  use  of  speech  must  continue  as  long  as  time  itself. 

The  following  instances  give  a  fair  specimen  of  the  inaccuracy 
of  that  language  which  children  follow  as  a  rule  of  speech  both  at 
home,  and  at  school : — 

I  set  with  ease. 

He  set  there  last  evening. 

The  book  lays  on  the  table. 

The  robber  was  hung. 

He  writes  like  John  did. 

I  done  it  as  well  as  I  could. 

It  is  broke  to  pieces. 

I  have  a  notion  to  go  to  church 

They  informed  me  how  his  father  was  a  merchant. 

This  root  is  a  preventative  against  a  fever. 

Jane,  put  these  things  to  rights. 

Brother  will  return  the  latter  end  of  March. 

Sags  I  to  him,  who  done  this? 

Many  take  great  pains  in  dress  to  appear  well,  and  secure  atten- 
tion ;  and,  so  far  as  personal  appearance  can  exert  an  influence, 
they  attain  to  their  end.  But  did  they  cultivate  their  own  language 
so  that  they  may  not  deform  themselves  in  conversation,  they 
might  completely  accomplish  the  object  at  which  they  aim.    Many 


310  SYNTAX. 

rely  entirely  upon  their  personal  appearance ;  but  the  more  in- 
teresting, and  superior  their  external  beauty,  the  more  apparent, 
and  impressive  are  all  their  defects :  for  the  fairer  a  diamond,  the 
greater  the  pity  that  it  should  have  a  blemish.  It  is  not  only  ridicu- 
lous that  young  ladies,  and  gentlemen  should  render  themselves 
repulsive  by  swerving  from  all  propriety  in  speech,  but  a  reflection 
upon  the  species  to  which  they  belong. 

To  converse,  narrate,  or  relate  with  accuracy,  and  interest,  at- 
tention must  be  given  to  the  following  points : — 

1.  The  proper  pronunciation  of  words. 

2.  The  proper  application  of  them. 

3.  The  proper  collocation  of  them. 

4-  The  proper  form,  or  modification  of  them. 

5.  The  proper  number  of  words. 

6.  The  nature  of  the  subject. 

7.  The  importance  of  it. 

8.  The  probable  degree  of  interest,  which  will  be  felt 
in  it. 

9.  The  proper  place  for  beginning. 

10.  The  interesting,  and  the  uninteresting  parts. 

11.  The  length  of  time,  which  those  whom  one  addresses, 
can  conveniently  devote  to  the  subject. 

SIT,    SET,   LIE,   LAY. 

In  the  use  of  these  words,  individuals  are  very  liable  to  commit 
error ;  they  are  words  which  every  person  should  understand  well, 
and  rightly  use,  if  he  would  prevent  his  being  classed  with  the 
illiterate,  and  vulgar. 

1.  Sit  denotes  a  state,  or  a  posture  of  a  person,  or  thing, 
has  two  tense  forms,  sit,  sat,  and  is  used  thus : — 

He  sits  with  his  brother  now ;  but  he  formerly  sal  with 
his  sister. 

There  are  many  persons  who  use  sot,  and  sale*  as  the  passed 
tense  of  sit,  instead  of  sat;  as,  he  sot  there  last  evening.  The  use 
of  this  corruption  shows  a  culpable  want  of  care  in  the  use  of  words. 

2.  Set  denotes  action,  has  no  variation  to  mark  different 
times,  and  is  used  thus  : — 

He  set  her  a  chair  in  which  she  set  down — and,  while  she 
sat  there,  she  saw  her  brother  sitting  in  his  study,  setting  his 
books  in  order. 

*  Sate  is  alwavs  used  for  sat,  in  Macaulay's  History  of  England,  London  ed. 


SYNTAX.  311 

Set  has  no  tense  variation ;  its  time  is  varied  by  have,  had,  did, 
is,  was,  &c. ;  as,  I  have  set  back  the  chairs ;  She  had  set  them 
away. 

We  are  not  very  liable  to  commit  error  by  using  another  word 
where  set  should  be  employed — but  we  are  quite  liable  to  err  by 
using  set  for  sit ;  as,  He  sets  in  that  pew ;  I  set  there  last  Sabbath. 

3.  Lie  denotes  a  state,  or  posture,  marks  different  times 
by  three  forms,  lie,  lay,  lain,  and  is  used  thus : — 

The  book  lies  on  the  table  now ;  It  lay  there  last  even- 
ing ;  and  it  has  lain  there  ever  since. 

4.  Lay  denotes  action,  has  two  tense  forms,  lay,  laid,  and 
is  used  thus  : — 

He  lays  his  hand  upon  the  table ;  He  laid  his  book  on 
the  bench. 

N.  B. — Where  lay  denotes  a  state,  or  posture,  it  is  the  passed 
tense  of  lie;  as,  The  book  lay  on  the  table  last  evening. 

But  when  lay  denotes  action,  it  is  the  present  of  laid;  as,  John, 
lay  your  book  upon  the  table. 

We  are  quite  liable  to  commit  error  by  using  lay  for  lie;  as,  The 
book  lays  on  the  table. 

< 

IMPEOPEB.  PEOPEE. 

I  set*  with  ease.  I  sit,  &c. 

I  set  there  last  evening.  I  sat,  &c. 

He  has  laid  here.  He  has  lain,  &c. 

It  was  lain  on  the  table.  It  was  laid,  &c. 

The  book  laid  on  the  desk.         The  book  lay,  &c. 

I  must  lay\  there.  I  must  lie  there. 

Will  you  sit  down.  Will  you  set  down. 

Note. — Here  the  idea  to  be  denoted  is  not  that  of  a  state,  or 
position ;  but  that  of  action.  Will  you  set  down  ?  That  is,  will 
you  set,  or  put  yourself  into  a  chair. 

The  robber  has  laid  on  the     m,        1 1      i_      ,  .     „ 
^  The  robber  has  lain,  &c. 

The  robber  was  hung.  The  robber  was  hanged. 

Note. — We  say  the  hat  is  hung  up — but  the  robber  was  hanged. 
Hung  denotes  a  state,  or  posture — hanged  means  an  act,  or  deed 
by  which  life  is  taken. 

Set  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  fit;  as,  the  coat  sets  well. 

This  use  of  the  word,  however,  is  not  in  accordance  with  its 
true  import.     It  is  quite  probable  that  even  here  sets  is  improperly 

*  Hens  set.  f  Hens  lay. 


312 


SYNTAX. 


used  for  siis.  The  coat  sits  well.  That  is,  it  sits  upon  one  as  a 
person  may  sit  upon  a  chair.  It  sits  upon  him.  That  is,  it  does 
not  hang  off,  but  touches  him,  or  comes  in  contact  with  him,  as  he 
who  sits  on  a  chair,  or  any  other  seat,  comes  in  contact  with  it. 
In  favour  of  this  position,  the  striking  analogy  between  the  posture 
of  a  coat  which  seems  to  be  falling  from  its  wearer,  and  that  of  a 
person  who  appears  to  be  falling  from  his  seat,  may  be  adduced. 

1.  The  coat  siis  on  the  bodywell. 

2.  The  man  sits  on  the  chair  firmly. 


Rule  XLI. 

Words  which  express  shades  of  thought,  in- 
consistent one  with  another,  should  not  be  so 
used  that  they  will  have  any  bearing  upon 
each  other. 

In  this  table,  the  shade  of  thought  expressed  by  the  Preposition,  and  that 
expressed  by  the  word,  with  which  the  Preposition  is  used,  are  suited 
one  to  the  other. 


Abhorrence  of. 
Abhorrent  to. 
Accommodate  to. 
Accord  to,  with. 
Accuse  of. 
Acquit  of. 

Acting  with,  for,  against. 
Adapted  to. 
Adjudge  in,  to,  for. 
Adjutory  to. 
Adjutant  to. 
Admire  at,  in. 
Admission  of,  to,  into. 
Admit  of,  into. 
Afflictive  to. 
Admonition  of. 
Admittance  into,  of. 
Advantage  of,  over. 
Advised  of,  by. 
Admonish  of. 
Adjudge  of,  to. 
Adverse  to. 
Agreeable  to. 
Amazed  at. 

Admonished  of,  by,  against. 
Approbation  of,  to. 
Arrive  at. 
Approval  of. 


Ask  of,  for,  after. 
Astonished  at. 
Aspire  to. 
Averse  to. 
Aversion  to. 
Be  at. 
Been  at. 
Believe  in,  on. 
Bestow  upon. 
Betray  into. 
Boast  of. 
Brag  of. 
Break  into. 
Call  on,  at,  to,  for. 
Charge  with,  on. 
Charge  to,  for,  with. 
Compare  to,  with. 
Compliance  icith. 
Concur  with,  in,  on. 
Confide  in. 
Conformable  to. 
Consonant  to. 
Contrary  to. 
Conversant  in,  with. 
Correspond  to,  with. 
Correspondent  to. 
Correspondence  with,  to, 
Copy  after,  from. 


SYNTAX. 


313 


Cut  into,  in,  with,  &c. 

Caution  against. 

Change  into,  to. 

Confused  with,  by. 

Claim  to,  on,  upon,  against. 

Convicted  of,  by. 

Debtor,  to,  for. 

Dependent  upon. 

Deprive  of. 

Derogation  from. 

Derogative  to. 

Derogatory  to. 

Desire  of,  for. 

Die  of,  by,  with. 

Dislike  to. 

Differ  with,  from,  in. 

Difficulty  in,  with. 

Diminish  from. 

Diminution  of. 

Disappointed  in,  of. 

Disapprove  of. 

Discourage  from. 

Discouragement  to. 

Dissent  from. 

Defalcation  from. 

Dangerous  to,  for. 

Defamatory  to. 

Default  of. 

Defiance  to,  of.  -> 

Deflux  of. 

Defluxion  from. 

Delay  of,  from,  in,  by. 

Demand  of,  on,  upon,  against. 

Destructive  of,  to. 

Detach  from. 

Detachment  of,  to. 

Deter  from. 

Detract  from. 

Detraction  of. 

Detractive,  to,  of. 

Detention  of,  in,  by. 

Deterge  from. 

Different  from. 

Displeasing  to. 

Eager  in. 

Easy for. 

Enmity  to. 

Engaged  in,  for,  at. 

Equal  with,  to. 

Exception  to,  at,  against. 


Expert  at,  in. 

Entrance  to,  into. 

Enter  into. 

Entrust  to,  with,  for. 

Fall  under. 

Familiar  with,  to. 

Foundation  of,  for. 

Free  from,  of. 

Friend  of,  to. 

Friendly  with. 

Glad  at,  of. 

Hatred  to,  of. 

Hope  of,  for. 

Incorporate  with,  into. 

In  dependent  of,  on,  upon. 

Indulge  in,  with. 

Insist  upon. 

Introduce  to,  into. 

Introduction  to,  into. 

Introductive  to. 

Intrude  upon,  into. 

Inferior  to,  in. 

Invite  in,  into. 

Key  to,  of. 

Limited  to. 

Live  on,  upon. 

Made  of,  from. 

Marry  to. 

Martyr  for. 

Model  of. 

Need  of. 

Necessity  of,  for. 

Necessary  to,  for. 

Offensive  to. 

Offend  against. 

Offence  at,  to. 

Pervious  to. 

Place  in. 

Plan  of,  for. 

Prevail  on,  upon,  over,  against, 

in. 
Prejudice  against,  of. 
Profit  by. 

Protect  against,  from. 
Provide  for,  with. 
Permission  of. 
Permeable  to. 
Previous  to. 
Predicated  of. 
Placed  in,  to,  by,  for,  with,  at. 


4 


314 


SYNTAX. 


Preventive  of,  against. 

Put  into,  in,  to. 

Pleased  with,  by. 

Pleasing  to,  in. 

Prior  to. 

Purchased  at,  in,  for,  by. 

Reconcile  with,  to. 

Reduce  to,  under,  in,  from. 

Receive  at,  to. 

Reflect  on,  upon. 

Regard  to,  in. 

Replete  with. 

Resemblance  to,  of  between. 

Resolved  on. 

Rule  over. 

Reproved  of,  for,  at,  in,  by. 

Right  of  to. 

Reside  at,  in. 

Same  with. 

Secretary  of,  to. 

Sink  into,  beneath,  under. 

Sick  of,  with. 


Sold  at,  in,  by,  for,  above. 

Split  in,  into,  for,  by,  with. 

Surprised  at. 

Suited  to. 

Suitableness  to. 

Suitable  for. 

Swerve  from. 

Taste  of,  for. 

Tax  for,  with. 

Think  on,  of  with,  upon. 

True  to. 

Tendency  to. 

Value  on,  upon,  of 

Vested  with,  in. 

Wait  on,  upon. 

Worthy  of. 

Walk  in,  into. 

Warn  against. 

Warning  against,  of,  by. 

War  with,  against. 

Wish  of,  for. 

Witness  to,  for,  against. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


1.  Accord  to,  Accord  with. 

When  accord  signifies  to  adjust  one  thing  to  another,  it  requires 
to ;  as,  Her  hands  accorded  the  music  of  the  lute  to  that  of  the 
voice. 

But  when  accord  signifies  to  agree,  to  be  in  correspondence,  it 
requires  with  ;  as,  His  words  accord  with  the  truth. 

2.  Inquire  of.  Inquire  for,  Inquire  after. 

We  inquire,  or  ask  for  a  book.  We  ask  of  a  person  after  some- 
thing of  which  we  desire  to  hear. 

3.  Call  on ,  Call  at. 

We  call  on  a  person — and  we  call  at  a  house. 

4.  Charge  with,  Charge  'upon. 

We  charge  a  person  with  a  crime — but  we  charge  the  error  in 
the  account  on  our  attorney. 

5.  Compare  to,  Compare  with. 

When  we  attempt  to  illustrate  one  thing  by  another,  we  com- 
pare one  thing  to  another ;  as,  Christ  is  compared  to  a  Iamb. 
But,  when  the  idea  is  nothing  more  than  a  resemblance  in  some 


SYNTAX.  315 

quality,  we  say  compared  with ;  as,  These  small  galleys  cannot  be 
compared  with  our  tall  ships. 

6.  Concur  withy  Concur  in,  Concur  on. 

We  say,  they  concur  with  each  other  in  opinion,  on  this  subject. 
Hence,  with,  in,  and  on,  may  follow  concur. 

7.  Conversant  with,  Conversant  in. 

We  say,  Henry  is  conversant  with  men — not,  in  men.  But  we 
say,  Henry  is  conversant  in  the  arts — not,  with  the  arts. 

8.  Copy  from,  Copy  after. 

We  say,  he  copies  from  nature — not,  after  nature.  But  we  say, 
he  copies  after,  not  from,  his  father. 

9.  Correspond  to,  Correspond  with. 

When  correspond  signifies  to  keep  up  an  intercourse  with  another 
by  letter,  we  say  with ;  as,  I  have  corresponded  with  my  brother 
for  several  years  on  this  subject. 

But,  when  correspond  means  to  agree  in  one,  or  more  respects, 
we  use  to;  as,  These  books  correspond  to  mine  with  regard  to  the 
amount  of  goods  sold. 

10.  Died  of,  Died  by. 

We  say,  he  died  of  the  consumption.  But,  we  do  not  say,  he 
died  of,  but,  by  a  fall — not,  of,  but,  by  the  sword. 

11.  Differ  with,  Differ  from. 

When  men  dispute,  and  wrangle,  we  say,  they  differ  with  one 
another.  But,  when  they  disagree  in  opinion,  we  say,  they  differ 
from  one  another. 

12.  Equal  to,  Eqmal  with. 

We  say,  he  is  equal  to — not,  with,  the  undertaking.  But,  we 
eay,  they  made  the  aged  equal  in  spoils  with — not,  to,  themselves. 

13.  Exception  to,  Exception  at,  Exception  against. 

We  say,  there  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.  When  opposition  is 
made,  agchut  may  be  used;  as,  They  made  exceptions  againet  this 
argument. 

When  didike  appears  to  aeeempany  the  objection,  take  is  gene- 
rally used ;  as,  He  took  exception  at  my  last  remark.  Iu  this  case, 
exception  may  be  followed  by  at,  to,  or  against ;  as.  Why  should  he 
take  exception  at  Uus  remark  ?  To  take  exception  to  my  remark, 
because  it  is  severe,  is  to  take  au  exception  against  me.  "  Rode- 
rigo,  thou  hast  taken  against  me  an  exception." — Shakspeare. 

14.  Indulge  with,  Indulge  in. 

If  the  matter  of  indulgence  is  not  a  habit,  we  use  with;  as,  He 


316  SYNTAX. 

indulged  himself  with  a  glass  of  wine.     But,  if  the  matter  of  indul- 
gence is  a  habit,  we  use  in;  as,  Henry  indulges  in  over-eating. 

15.  Introduce  to,  Introduce  into. 

We  say  of  a  man,  he  was  introduced  to  the  President.  But,  we 
say  of  a  book,  it  was  introduced  into  school.  It  is  important  to 
introduce  good  habits  into  children. 

16.  Introduction  to,  Introduction  into. 

The  introduction  of  the  President  to  the  company.  The  intro- 
duction of  these  goods  into  America. 

17.  Intrude  upon.  Intrude  into. 

He  intruded  himself  upon  the  ground.  He  intruded  into  the 
room. 

18.  Prevail  on,  Prevail  upon,  Prevail  over,  Prevail  against, 

Prevail  in. 

When  prevail  signifies  to  persuade,  we  use  with,  on,  or  upon;  as, 
I  wish  that  I  could  prevail  with  you  to  return  to  Boston ;  He  pre- 
vailed on  me  to  accompany  him ;  The  glass  had  a  charm  which 
prevailed  upon  him  to  break  his  temperance  vow. 

But,  when  prevail  signifies  to  overcome,  to  subdue,  to  get  the 
advantage,  we  use  over,  or  against;  as,  " David  prevailed  over  the 
Philistine  with  a  sling,  and  a  stone;"  England  will  not  prevail 
against  America. 

When  prevail  signifies  to  extend  over  with  influence,  we  use  in ; 
as,  The  fever  prevailed  in  a  great  part  of  the  city. 

19.  Protect  against,  Protect  from. 

We  protect  ourselves  against  the  rain.  But,  we  protect  others 
from  the  rain. 

20.  Reconcile  to,  Reconcile  with. 

We  say,  we  will  attempt  to  reconcile  these  persons  to  each  other. 
But,  we  do  not  say,  we  will  undertake  to  reconcile  his  statement 
to  the  truth.  Here,  with  should  be  used ;  as,  We  will  reconcile  his 
statement  with  the  truth  of  the  case. 

21.  To  Reduce  under,  Reduce  to. 

When  reduce  means  to  subdue,  we  use  under  ;  as,  England  would 
be  glad  to  reduce  us  under  her  control.  But,  when  reduce  signifies 
to  take  from  one  condition  to  another,  we  use  to  ;  as,  He  would  be 
glad  to  reduce  these  rooks  to  powder ;  Can  he  reduce  whole  num- 
bers to  fractions  with  perfect  ease  ?  He  is  reduced  to  a  skeleton. 

22.  Disappointed  of,  Disappointed  in. 

When  we  are  disappointed  in  obtaining  a  thing,  we  use  of—  but 
when  in  the  quality,  or  character  of  a  person,  or  thing,  we  use  in. 


SYNTAX.  317 

Discouragement,  according  to  the  sense,  may  have  of,  by,  in,  or 
tcith. 

Glad,  may  have  of,  or  at,  but  not  on. 

Difference,  may  have  among,  between,  or  betwixt,  but  rarely  of. 

Failed,  requires  in,  or  of,  according  to  the  sense ;  as,  He  failed 
in  his  business,  because  he  failed  of  collecting  his  demands. 


REMARK. 

The  same  prepositions  which  follow  the  primitive  word,  gene- 
rally follow  the  derivative ;  as.  Derive  from,  Derivation  from ; 
Friend  to,  Friendly  to. 

Note  I.— Where  the  relation  denoted  by  t*t«  preposition  is  mere 
acquaintance,  of  should  be  used  after  friend;  as,  He  was  a  friend 
of  mine. 

But,  when  the  relation  is  real  friendship,  or  genuine  affection, 
to  should  be  used ;  as,  He  is  a  friend  to  the  poor ;  They  have  long 
been  friends  to  me ;  Washington  was  a  friend  to  his  country. 

Note  II. — Although,  generally,  the  same  preposition  which  fol- 
lows the  primitive  words,  follows  the  derivative,  yet  we  say  dimi- 
nish from  ;  but  diminution  of— and  sometimes  friend  of;  but  in  all 
eases,  friendly  to. 

Note  III.— One  noun  should  not  be  subjoined  to  another,  unless 
both  will  admit  the  same  preposition ;  as,  This  is  a  ride.,  and  guide 
to  his  conduct. 

Now,  as  we  eannot  say  rule  to,  the  construction  of  the  sentence 
should  be  changed,  that  each  noun  may  have  its  proper  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  This  is  a  rule  of,  and  a  guide  to  his  conduct.  ^ 

Note  IV. — Between,  and  betwixt,  should  be  used  where  there  are 
but  two  things — among,  and  amongst,  where  there  are  more  than 
two ;  as,  Between  these  two,  there  is  great  contention ;  but  among 
these  three,  there  is  great  harmony. 

Note  V. — When  we  are  disappointed  in  obtaining  a  thing,  we 
use  of;  as,  They  have  been  disappointed  of  money. 

But,  when  we  possess  the  thing,  and  the  quality  does  not  come 
up  to  our  expectations,  we  use  in;  as,  They  are  disappointed  in 
these  silks. 

Note  VI. — During  should  be  used  only  where  the  event  continues 
through  all  the  period  which  is  mentioned ;  as,  I  have  written  let- 
ters during  the  day. 


Invite,  Put,  Split,  Took,  Walk,  Key. 

Invite,  when  the  mono  shows  where  the  invitation  is  given,  re- 
quires in ;  as,  He  invited  me  in  the  street,  to  call  at  his  houses 
Invite,  when  the  mono  shows  to  what  place  one  is  invited,  re- 
27* 


318  '  SYNTAX. 

quires  into,  or  to;  as,  He  invited  me  into  his  house;  They  invited 
her  to  our  house. 

In  may  be  used  as  an  adverb ;  as,  He  invited  me  in. 

Put,  when  the  mono  shows  where  the  act  is  done,  requires  in ; 
as,  He  put  his  hand  upon  me,  in  this  room. 

Put,  when  the  mono  shows  into  what  something  is  put,  requires 
into;  as,  He  put  the  dollar  into  his  pocket. 

Split,  when  the  mono  shows  where  something  is  split,  requires 
in  ;  as,  He  split  the  log  in  the  cellar. 

Split,  when  the  mono  shows  the  division  itself  of  a  thing,  re- 
quires into  ;  as,  He  split  the  log  into  two. 

Took,  requires  in  as  a  preposition ;  as,  They  took  the  stranger 
in. 

Took,  requires  into  as  a  preposition ;  as,  He  took  the  book  into 
his  hands. 

Walk,  when  the  mono  intimates  the  leaving  of  one  place  for 
another,  requires  into  ;  as,  He  walked  into  the  house. 

Walk,  when  the  mono  shows  where  the  action  is  done  without 
intimating  the  leaving  of  one  place  for  another,  requires  in ;  as, 
He  walks  in  his  own  room. 

Walk,  requires  in  as  a  preposition ;  as,  Will  you  walk  in,  sir  ? 

Key,  When  the  noun  denotes  a  part  of  a  thing,  requires  of;  as, 
This  is  the  key  of  that  lock. 

Key,  when  the  thing  mentioned,  is  presented  as  a  kind  of  guide, 
or  clue,  requires  to;  as,  This  event  furnishes  a  key  to  all  the 
secrets  in  the  case. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

Whether,  Neither,  Although,  Unless,  As,  So,  Not  only, 
Both. 

Whether,  and  either,  require  or;  as,  He  is  either  good,  or  bad; 
It  is  not  known  whether  he  is  good,  or  bad. 

Neither,  requires  nor ;  as,  He  would  neither  do  it,  nor  permit 
me  to  do  it. 

Although,  and  though,  require  yet,  or  nevertheless ;  as,  Though 
the  house  is  small,  yet  it  is  very  convenient ;  Although  he  was  rich, 
yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor ;  Though  he  desires  it,  neverthe- 
less I  cannot  yield.  -    - 

As,  in  a  comparison,  requires  so;  as,  As  your  day  is,  so  it  shall 
be  unto  you. 

As,  where  it  refers  to  an  adjective  in  a  comparison  of  equality, 
requires  as  ;  as,  I  think  Milton  as  great  a  poet  as  Virgil. 

So,  where  it  refers  to  an  adjective,  requires  thatt  or  as;  as,  I 
was  so  tired  that  I  fell  asleep. 

As,  and  so,  in  these  cases,  are  subadjectives. 

Both,  requires  and.     Not  only,  requires  but, 


SYNTAX.  319 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XLI. 
1.  [I  arrived]  (in  the  city)  (    ,    yesterday.) 
The  use  of  in  for  at,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XLI. 
Bulb ;  as,  [I  arrived]  (at  the  city)  (yesterday.) 

NOTE. 

Words  which  enable  the  mind  barely  to  infer  the  idea, 
should  not  be  substituted  for  those  which  would  clearly  ex- 
press it. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  the  Note  appended  to  Rule  XLI. 
[It  is  right  cold]  (to-day.) 

The  substitution  of  right  for  very,  is  a  violation  of  the  Note  ap- 
pended to  Rule  XLI. 

Note ;  as,  [It  is  very  cold]  (to-day.) 


EXERCISES. 


1.  [I  arrived]  (in  Boston)  Ton  Monday.) 

2.  ^He  was  accused]  (for  this  crime.) 

3.  'My  abhorrence  (at  the  man)  is  great.] 

4.  'He  was  acquitted]  (from  the  charge.) 

5.  This  system  is  not  adapted]  (for  children.) 
0.     He  has  come  agreeably]  (with  his  promise.) 

7.  I  have  an  aversion]  (for  all  kinds)  (of  vice.) 

8.  'He  bestows  encomiums]  (on  the  work.) 

9.  'Stephen  boasts]  (about  his  goodness.) 

10.  He  brags]  (about  his  activity.) 

11.  'Thomas  broke  the  stick]  (in  two.) 

12.  'James  called  (upon  me)  very  early.] 

13.  [Do  they  confide]  (to  each  other?)     [Yes,  some  have  great 
confidence]  (for  others.) 

14.  [I  am  not  conversant]  (with  Greek.) 

15.  He  acted  conformably]  (with  his  instruction.) 
10.    'This  rule  is  consonant]  (with  reason.) 

17.    'Examples]   (corresponding)   (with  the  number)  (in   the 
preceding  list.) — Waterman's  English  Grammar. 

1  ft,   Rule  V.  corresponding  with  Murray's  Rule  V. — B.  C.  Smith's 
English  Grammar,  page  130. 

1  still  correspond]  (to  my  friend,)  (by  letter.) 

His  compliance  (to  his  brother's  proposition,)  injured  me.] 

James  cut  the  quill]  (in  three  pieces.) 


19 


21. 


22.  [William  is  dependent]  (on  me)  (for  money.) 


320  SYNTAX. 


23. 


"He  will  resent  any  derogation]  (of  his  good  name.) 

24.  [He  wrote  this  letter]  (with  moonlight)  (by  a  poor  pen.) 

25.  [They  differ]  (with  each  other)  (in  opinion.) 

26.  "I  must  dissent]  (with  that  gentleman)  (in  opinion.) 

27.  [Any  diminution  (from  the  original  sum)  (will  displease 
them.) 

28.  [He  was   disappointed]    (of  his  goods;)  (for  they  were 
damaged.) 

29.  [I  was  disappointed]  (in  money.) 

30.  I  am  glad  (for  an  opportunity)  to  do  good.] 

31.  [There  is  a  difference]  (of  writers)  (on  this  subject.) 

32.  [He  failed]  (in  collecting)  (his  money;)  (and,  consequently, 
he  failed)  (of  his  business.) 

33.  (From  this  Rule)  [there  are  a  number]  (of  exceptions.) — 
P  Bullions' s  English  Grammar,  page  129. 

34.  (And  always  to  omit  a  relative  when)  (of  the  nominative 
case.) — P.  Bullions's  English  Grammar,  page  130. 


Before  attempting  to  correct  the  following ■,  the  pupil  should 
examine  the  Observations  and  Notes  under  Rule  XLI. 

Subtraction  is]  (a  derivative)  (of  subtract.) 

36.  [Washington  was]  (a  friend)  (of  his  country.) 

37.  ri 
38. 
39. 


[This  is]  (a  guide,) -(and)  (rule)  (to  his  conduct.) 
"He  divided  the  apple]  (between  his  few  friends.) 
'There    should   be    no  difference]    (betwixt  those    three 
brothers.) 

40.  [The  property  will  be  divided]  (among  the  two  sisters.) 

41.  [This  document  (which  has  just  been  printed)  states  that] 
(during  the  past  year)  (1,721,000  (  ,  pages)  (of  tracts)  have  been 
distributed)  (in  the  city)  (of  New  York.) 

42.  (On  one  occasion)  (during  the  Peninsular  war,)  [the  same 
regiment  came  suddenly]  (upon  the  French  army.) 

43.  [I  had  occasion  (during  our  preliminary  remarks)  (on  know- 
ledge,) to  insist  much]  (on  the  importance)  (of  aocurate  lan- 
guage.) 

44.  [The  substance  (of  the  three  first  lectures)  (which  appear) 
(in  the  present  volume,)  was  first  delivered]  (in  Cincinnati,)  (dur- 
ing the  course)  (of  the  last  summer.) 

45.  ["Conditions:] — (Two  dollars)  (if  paid)  (in  advance,)  (two 
dollars)  (and)  (fifty  cents)  (if  paid)  (during  the  year!") 

Before  attempting  to  correct  the  following,  the  pupil  should 
examine  the  Remarks  on  Invite,  Put,  Split,  Took,  Walk, 
Key,  &c. 

46.  [This  is]  (the  key)  (to  that  lock.) 

47.  [This  fact  is]  (a  key)  (of  the  true  cause)  (of  this  event.) 


SYNTAX.  321 

48.  [These  are]  (the  keys)  (to  that  musical  instrument.) 

49.  (He  put  his  knife)  (in  his  pocket.) 

60.  (He  took  the  book)  (in  his  own  hand.) 

61.  [They  invited  him]  (in  the  house.) 

62.  [Will  you  walk]  (in  this  room?) 

63.  'He  broke  the  glass]  (in  fifty  pieces.) 

64.  [They  split  the  log]  (in  two.) 

65.  [Let  them  be  made]  (in  pairs.) 

Examine  the  Remarks  on  In,  and  At. 

66.  [He  lives]  (at  New  York.) 
57.  [They  reside]  (at  Lancaster.) 


68.  [Our  friends  (who  live)  (at  Rome)  are]  (at  Philadelphia.) 

j]  (to  the  banking  he 
60.  [I  was]  (to  church)  (last  evening.) 


69. ,  [I  was]  (to  the  banking  house)  (last  week.) 


61.  [He  purchased  these  books]  (to  this  bookstore.) 

62.  [Do  you  think  that]  (you  will  be)  (to  home  ?) 

63.  [Yes,  I  shall  be]  (to  home)  (     ,     to-morrow.) 

64.  [John  says  that]  (he  will  be)  (to  singing  school)  (in  the 
evening.)  '  - 

The  pupil  should  now  examine  Remarks  on  the  Conjunc- 
tions.— Exegesis. 

65.  [John  is  sick;]  (and  his  brother  is  well.) 

And  indicates  that  the  brother  is  also  sick. 

66.  [John  is  sick;]  (but  his  brother  is  sick.) 

67.  [It  is  written]  (that)  (man  shall  not  live)  (by  bread)  (     , 

,     ,     alpne,)  (and)  (by  every  word)  (that  proceedeth  out)  (of  the 
mouth)  (of  God.) 

68.  (Neither  [John  or  his  brother)  was  there.] 

69.  (Either  [John  nor  his  brother)  was  there.] 

70.  [He  is  sick,]  (because  he  needs  the  doctor.) 

71.  He  is  so  sick  as  to  need  a  physician.] — Book  I.  page  154. 

72.  1  do  not  know]  (if  he  will  go,)  (or)  (     ,     ,     ,     stay.) 
[Mine  is  so  ripe]  (as  yours.) 
I  am  as  weak]  (that)  (I  cannot  stand.) 

*Not  only  his  property,  (and  also  his  life)  was]  (in  danger.) 
"It  is  (neither  cold,]  or  hot.) 


73. 
74. 
75. 

76. 


77.  [It  is  so  clear]  (as)  (I  need  not  explain  it.) 


See  Set,  Sit,  Lie,  and  Lay. 

h  ease.) 

re]  (last  evening.) 
The  book  lays]  (on  the  table.) 


78.  [I  set]  (with  ease.) 

79.  [He  set  there]  (last  evening.) 

80.  K 


322  SYNTAX. 

81.  [The  book  laid]  (on  the  table.) 

82.  [Will  you  sit  down  ?] 

83.  [I  set]*  (with  ease.) 

84.  [I  must  soon  lay*  there.] 

85.  [It  was  lain]  (on  the  table.) 

86.  [I  set*  there]  (last  evening.) 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  BAD  ENGLISH. 

87.  The  robber  was  hung. 

88.  [It  is  broken]  (to  pieces.) 

89.  [They  informed  me]  (how)  (his  father  was)  (a  merchant.) 

90.  [Jane  will  not  put  these  things]  (to  rights.) 

91.  We  must  confess  our  disapprobation. 

92.  [They  ran]  (with  avidity.) 

93.  [They  seized  their  prey]  (with  eagerness.) 

94.  The  exhibition  is  now  open. 

95.  [My  coat  is  now]  (at  the  tailor's ;)  (and  it  will  be  made) 
(next  week.) 

96.  [I  would  as  lief  go]  (as  stay.) 

97.  [Every  word  (which  is  used,)  should  have  a  legitimate 
form.] 

98.  He  plead  his  own  case. 

99.  Do  you  mind  how  many  chapters  are  (in  Job  ?) 

100.  [A  letter  conceived]  (in  the  following  words.) 

101.  His  public  character  is  undeniable. 

102.  He  proposes  to  buy  a  house. 

103.  He  performs  his  duty  daily. 

104.  [When,  therefore,]  (the  Lord  knew  how)  (the  Pharisees  had 
heard  that.) — John  iv.  1. 

105.  [Did  you  take  notice]  (to  him?) 

106.  He  emended  his  faults. 

107.  He  corrected  his  conduct. 

108.  She  has  improved  her  condition. 

109.  This  man  has  rectified  his  error.  .     . 

110.  We  should  correct  our  mistakes. 

111.  We  heard  him  attentively. 

112.  ["Exercises]  (on  prosody.") — John  Frost's  Grammar. 

113.  ["A  sentence  ought  to  be  divested]  (of  all  redundant  words.") 
— John  Frost's  Grammar. 

114.  [Much  more  kindness  (and  humanity)  is  used]  (towards 
brutes.) 

115.  [The  city  (of  Philadelphia,)  is  distinguished]  (above  every 
other  city)  (in  America.) 

116.  [English  Grammar  made  easy]  (to  the  teacher)  (     ,      , 

*  Hens  lay,  and  set ;  but  people  lie,  and  sit. 


STNTAX.  323 

,  ,  )  (  ,  ,  pupil,)  (originally  compiled)  (for  the  use)  (of 
West- town  boarding  school,)  (by  John  Comly.) 

117.  [English  Grammar]  (in  familiar  lectures;)  (accompanied) 
(by  a  compendium.) — S.  Kirkham's  English  Grammar. 

118.  (On  the  present  opportunity,)  [I  have  the  pleasure  to  re- 
peat those  acknowledgments.] — Richard  W.  Green's  Guide. 

119.  (Which  book  [it  struck  me]  would  probably  form  the  best 
possible  companion)  (to  this  little  book.) — Richard  W.  Green's 
Guide. 

120.  [The  author  (  ,  ,  )  (Mr.  Henry  Butler,)  has  arranged 
the  book]  (in  the  best  possible  manner.) — Richard  W.  Green's 
Guide. 

121.  A  guide  (to  the  Orthography,)  (Pronunciation,)  (and) 
(Derivation)  (of  the  English  language.) — Richard  W.  Green's 
Guide. 

122.  [I  expect  that]  (my  father  has  already  come.) 

123.  [His  furniture  was  pawned ;]  (and  he  ransomed  it)  (by  the 
aid)  (of  his  friends.) 

124.  And  (should  you  not  aspire)  Tat  distinction)  (in  the  re- 
public) (of  letters.) — S.  Kirkham's  English  Grammar. 

125.  [This  is]  (the  pen)  (whom  I  made.) 

126.  [As  (we  passed  rapidly)  (along  ,  ,  )  I  saw  a  mile 
Btone,]  (and  this  granite  orator  (which  bore  the  marks)  (of  old 
age)  declared  clearly  (and  eloquently)  that)  (it  was  then)  (forty 
miles)  (to  Philadelphia.) 

127.  (Gentle  bird,)  (which  fliestso  easily,)  [come  hither.] 

128.  [I  am  as  well  pleased]  (with  that  introduction)  (as  ,  ,  ) 
(with  any  thing)  (which  I  have  lately  done.) 

129. 
130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
evil,) 


The  derivation]  (of  one  word)  (of  another.) 

Can  you  give  the  reason]  (of  this  motion)  (of  the  water  ?) 

He  replied  that]  (he  despised  this  course.) 

Men  have  different  motives]  (for  their  opinions.) 

And  it  is  precisely]  (for  the  purpose)  (of  remedying)  (the 


*    *     *     (that)  (the  following  work  was  prepared.) — 
Preface  to  J.  Frost's  Grammar. 

134.  [He  cannot  speak  accurately]  (without  he  learns  gram- 
mar.) 

135.  [It  explains  the  usages]  (of  language.*) — Introduction  to  J, 
Frosts  Grammar. 

136.  [There  are  many]  (who  understand  it)  (as  a  science,) 
(butf  do  not  practice  it)  (as  an  art.) — Introduction  to  J.  Frost'* 
Grammar. 

*  We  do  not  ascribe  the  usage  to  the  things  used,  hut  to  him  who  uses  them, 
t  This  use  of  but  as  a  relative,  (a  pronoun,)  is  very  had. 


324  SYNTAX. 

LESSON  IV. 

THE  POSITION  OP  ONE  WORD  IN  RESPECT  TO  ANOTHER, 
AND  THE  POSITION  OF  ONE  MONO  IN  RESPECT  TO 
ANOTHER. 

I.  Position  of  Words. 

The  position  of  a  word  respects  the  place  which  it  occupies 
in  respect  to  another  word. 

Rule  XLII. 

Every  clade  must  be  placed  as  near  to  its 
own  super  as  possible,  and  on  that  side  of  it, 
which  will  insure  the  highest  degree  of  perspi- 
cuity, euphony,  and  continuity ;  as, 

1.  [He  is]  (the  man)  (of  whom)  (we  heard.)     Good. 

2.  [He  is]  (the  man)  {whom  (we  heard)  of)     Bad. 

3.  Boy  is  therefore  here  in  the  objective  case.  Bad. — 
Goold  Brown's  Grammar. 

4.  Therefore  boy  is  here  in  the  objective  case.    Good. 

5.  I  will  call,  and  pay  you  again.     (Bad.) 

The  wrong  position  of  again,  makes  the  writer  say  that  he  will 
repeat  the  payment. 

6.  I  will  call  again,  and  pay  you.     (Good.) 

Note. — When  things  are  taken  in  numeral  groups,  the  word 
which  designates  a  group  by  its  successive  position,  is  a  subadjective ; 
and  it  should  be  placed  before  the  principal  adjective  which  expresses 
how  many  are  included  in  a  group ;  as,  The  first  seven  verses ;  The 
last  two  books ;  The  first  four  pens. 

I  do  not  know  that  the  doctrine  of  this  Note,  is  a  controverted 
point.  But  the  following,  taken  from  Weld's  English  Grammar, 
clearly  intimates  a  disagreement  on  this  subject,  among  the  old 
school  grammarians : — 

"The  question  whether  the  numerals  two,  three,  four, 
should  stand  before  the  words  first,  or  last,  or  whether  first, 
or  last  should  stand  before  the  numerals,  does  not  appear  to 
be  settled  by  usage.  There  are  good  authorities  on  both 
sides."_ 

This  quotation  from  an  English  Grammar  which  has  already  ex- 


SYNTAX.  325 

hausted  the  fiftieth  edition,  should  make  those  who  pretend  that 
grammar  has  already  attained  to  its  acme  of  excellence,  blnsh ! 

But  the  fact  which  the  quotation  states,  is  not  the  only  cause  of 
deep  mortification.  The  grossly  bad  English  which  is  found  in  it, 
is  another  cause  for  humiliation  in  the  old  school. 

Should  stand  before  the  words  first  or  last ! 

A  mere  child  that  has  acquired  all  his  notions  of  propriety  of 
expression  from  his  attention  to  the  common  household  style,  would 
Bay  from  the  word  first  or  last.  But  this  Mr.  Weld,  who  writes  a 
grammar  for  the  learned,  and  the  gifted,  treats  or  as  and,  and  and 
as  or! 

But  this  is  not  all.  Every  old  school  grammarian  that  has  ever 
compiled  an  English  grammar,  denominates  both  numeral  words 
in  these  expressions,  the  first  six  books,  the  last  three  verses,  adjec- 
tives I  If,  then,  the  science  of  English  grammar  has  attained  to 
perfection,  it  has  attained  to  it  by  the  agency  of  men  who  do  not 
know  the  parts  of  speech  !  Why,  if  both  numerals  are  adjectives, 
one  form  of  expression  is  as  just  as  the  other. 

The  first  six  verses. 

If  first  is  an  adjective  here,  it  follows  that  first  verses,  Is  the 
legitimate  idea :  hence  the  conclusion  that  there  are  six  verses 
which  are  actually  first,  is  inevitable  1  But  if  first  is  an  adverb, 
belonging  to  the  adjective,  six,  every  thing  but  the  old  Grammars 
is  consistent  with  reason. 


Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XLII. 
1.  He  invited  back  his  friends. 
The  wrong  position  of  back,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XLII. 
Rule ;  as,  He  invited  his  friends  back. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Samuel  will  write  the  letters  indeed. 

2.  Sister  will  arrive  peradventure. 

3.  Twice  they  returned. 

4.  He  is  here  not  often. 

5.  William  nobly  acted. 

6.  [They  cannot  well  read]  (unless  distinctly  they  see  the 
print.) 

7.  [They  presented  their  gifts]  (which  being  not  received)  (they 
became  unhappy.) 

8.  [Nearly  half  (of  the  course)  (of  the  study)  (which  (he  is 
required  to  go)  through,)  is]  (of  little  use.) — Caleb  Farnum'a 
Eviflish  Grammar. 

9.  [An  interjection  is]  (a  word)  (uttered  abruptly,  to  express 
some  passion,  or  emotion  of  the  speaker.) — Caleb  Farnum' s  English 
Grammar. 

28 


326  SYNTAX. 

10.  (Within  the  two  last  years)  [he  has  lost  money.] 

11.  Education  is  not  attended  to  properly. 

12.  I  shall  correct  it  never. 

13.  [Tell]  (what  (the  pronouns  stand)  for.) — Caleb  Farnum'g 
English  Grammar. 

14.  The  two  next  classes  may  go  out. 

15.  Sing  the  three  first  verses. 

16.  [The  heavenly  bodies  are  (in  motion)  perpetually.] 

17.  [Tell]  (what  (the  prepositions  show  the  relation)  between.) 
Caleb  Farnum's  English  Grammar. 

18.  (Whom  [were  you  speaking]  of?) 

19.  [Prepositions  refer]  (to  uncordictive  nouns,  and  pronouns,) 
(which  (they  should  stand)  before.) 

20.  [Give  (me)  some  water]  (which  to  wash  in.) 

21.  [I  have  seen  him]  (whom  (you  wrote)  to.) 

22.  (Whom  [did  you  get  your  instruction]  from  ?) 
What  [have  you  been  talking]  about  ?) 
Whom  [did  he  lay  the  blame]  on  ?) 
It  is  not]  (I)  (whom  (he  is  displeased)  with.) 
"History,  only  mentions  two  passengers]  (who  escaped.) 
^Knowing  not  that]  (this  man  was)  (his  father)  (he  passed 

him  by)  (without  speaking.) 

28.  These  words  were  all  no  doubt  originally  other  parts  of 
speech. — Hart's  Grammar. 

29.  Still,  as  the  original  words  from  which  the  conjunctions  and 
prepositions  are  derived  are  mostly  absolute,  these  words  are  to  be 
now  regarded  in  reference  to  their  present  use,  and  not  their  origi- 
nal character. — Hart's  Grammar. 

30.  Thus  to  require  a  child  to  parse  if  as  the  imperative  of  the 
verb,  gifan,  to  give,  and  unless  as  the  imperative  of  the  verb,  onle- 
san,  to  dismiss,  would  only  serve  to  perplex  and  embarrass. — 
Hart's  Grammar. 


II.  Position  o/Monos. 

The  position  of  a  mono  respects  the  place  which  it  occu- 
pies in  regard  to  another  mono. 


Rule  XLIII. 

Every  sub  mono  should  be  placed  as  near  to 
its  super  as  possible,  and  on  that  side  of  it  which 
will  insure  the  highest  degree  of  perspicuity, 
euphony,  and  continuity;  as, 


SYNTAX.  327 

1.  He  at  least  joined  the  army. 
That  is,  he  joined  if  no  one  else  did. 

2.  He  joined  at  least  the  army.. 

That  is,  he  joined  although  he  might  not  have  remained. 

3.  He  joined  the  army  at  least. 

That  is,  he  joined  the  army,  and  he  may  have  joined  a  dozen 
other  things,  or  he  may  not  have  joined  any  thing  but  the  army, 
yet  he  certainly  joined  the  army. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  tyj  Rule  XLILL 

[My  book  (which  I  found  after)  (a  long  search  ,  ,  ,  )  (mi 
the  g arret)  was  not  much  soiled.] 

The  position  of  the  mono,  in  the  garret,  is  a  violation  of  Rule 
XLIII. 

Rule ;  as,  [My  book  (which  I  found  (in  the  garret,) 

after)  (a  long  search    ,    ,    ,    )  was  not  much  soiled.] 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [He  passed  (at  least)  five  years]  (in  college.) 

2.  [I  will  keep  the  boys]  (at  least)  (from  fighting)  (if  they  do 
wrestle.) 

3.  [One  may  see  now  the  world  goes]  (with  half  an  eye.) 

4.  [I  saw  a  ship]  (gliding  under  full  sail)  (through  a  spy 
glass.) 

5.  [A  great  stone  (that  I  happened  to  find  after)  (a  long 
(search  ,  ,  ,  )  (by  the  sea  shore)  served  me]  (for  an 
anchor.) 

6.  [I  would  propose,  (at  least,)  (for  the  present,)  to  act  as  in- 
spector) (of  these  schools.) — Alexander  Dallas  Bache,  LL.D. 

7.  The  Professor  will  deliver  a  lecture  on  Saturday  evening 
next,  on  the  subject  of  Electricity,  and  its  uses. 

8.  Person  in  grammar,  is  the  relation  of  a  noun. — P.  BulMons's 
Grammar. 

9.  [He  drank  the  water]  (himself.) 

10.  'I  went]  (myself)  (into  the  house.) 

11.  [Did  people  learn  to  speak]  (by  it)  (at  first?) — John  Frost's 
Grammar. 

12.  [The  answer  would,  (of  course)  be]  (it  is  incorrect,)  (be- 
cause it  is  not  according)  (to  the  principles)  (of  Grammar.) — John 
Frost's  Grammar. 

13.  (As  I  have  given  no  Rules)  (respecting  the  forms)  (of  monos) 
(in  Chapter  I.)  [I  shall  treat]  (of  them)  (in  this  Appendix.) 

14.  [A  vowel  is]  (a  letter)  (which  makes  (by  itself)  a  perfect 
sound.) — J.  Frost's  Grammar. 


328  _        SYNTAX. 

15.  [I  wish  (through  the  columns)  (of  your  paper)  to  call  the 
attention]  (of  the  public)  (to  a  circumstance)  (which  is  very  sin- 
gular.) 

16.  (By  some)  [this  system  will  (no  doubt)  be  discarded]  (on 
account)  (of  its  simplicity.) — Preface  to  Kirkham's  Grammar. 

1 7.  (His  predecessors  are  very  deficient,)  (at  least,)  (in  manner,) 
(if  not)  (in  matter.) — Same  Preface. 

18.  Life  should  be  well  employed,  which  is  short. 

19.  [They  should  not  be  entitled  to  be  called]  (  ,  ,  ,  ) 
(grammarians,)  (who  cannot  use  their  own  language)  (with  pro- 
priety.) 

20.  Four  kinds  of  type  are  used  in  the  following  pages  to  indi- 
cate the  portions  that  are  considered  more  or  less  elementary. — 
Hart's  Grammar. 

21.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  conjunctions  and  prepo- 
sitions serve  merely  to  connect  the  other  parts  of  a  sentence  (with- 
out any  significancy)  (of  their  own.)— Hart's  Grammar. 


LESSON  V. 

THE  FORM  OF  ONE   MONO  IN   RESPECT  TO   THAT  OP 
ANOTHER. 

Rule  XLIY. 

Memos  which  express  similar  ideas,  should 
be  similar  in  their  forms ;  as, 

1.  When  both  vowels  are  heard,  the  diphthong  is  called 
proper  ;  as,  oi,  in  voice. 

2.  When  only  one  is  heard,  it  is  called  improper;  as,  ea, 
in  eagle. 

"  For  whatever  we  may  think  of  its  origin — whether  we 
consider  it  a  special  gift  from  Heaven,  or  an  acquisition  of 
industry — a  natural  endowment,  or  an  artificial  invention — 
certain  it  is,  that,  in  the  present  state  of  things,  our  know- 
ledge of  it  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entirely,  on 
the  voluntary  exercise  of  our  faculties,  and  on  the  helps  and 
opportunities  afforded  us." — Goold  Brown's  Grammar. 

It  is  a  leading  doctrine  in  English  Grammar,  that  monos  which 
express  similar  ideas,  should  be  similar  in  their  constructive  forms. 


SYNTAX.  329 

But,  from  a  mere  glance  at  three,  or  four  of  the  monos  in  this 
sentence,  it  will  appear  that  Mr.  Brown  has  totally  disregarded 
this  cardinal  doctrine  in  the  very  preface  of  his  English  grammar ! 

1.  ("  a  special  gift)  (from  Heaven")    (  . 

2.  r"  an  acquisition)  (of  industry") 

3.  ("  a  natural  endowment") 

4.  ("  an  artificial  invention") 

1.  As  a  gift,  language  sprang  from  Heaven. 

2.  As  an  acquisition,  it  sprang  from  industry. 

Is  not  the  author  speaking  of  the  source  of  language  when  he 
calls  it  a  natural  endowment  ?  And  is  he  not  speaking  of  the 
source  of  it  when  he  calls  it  an  artificial  invention?  If  so,  why  has 
he  not  commenced  these  monos  with  of?  Had  he  done  so,  these 
two  uncordictive  clads  would  be  similar  in  their  constructive  form 
to  the  other  two  monos  which  direct  the  attention  of  the  reader  to 
the  source  of  language : 

1.  (a  special  gift)  [from  Heaven.) 

2.  (an  acquisition)  (of  industry .) 

3.  (an  endowment)  (of  nature.) 

4.  (an  invention)  (of  art.) 

For  whatever  we  may  think  of  its  origin, — whether  we  consider 
it  a  special  gift  from  Heaven, — an  acquisition  of  industry, — an  en- 
dowment of  nature, — or  an  invention  of  art,  certain  it  is,  &c. 

Another  instance  in  which  the  want  of  analogy  in  the  forms  of 
two  monos  which  are  similar  in  ideas,  is  found  in  this  syllabane — 

"in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entirely." 

Certain  it  is,  that,  in  the  present  state  of  things,  our  knowledge 
of  it  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entirely,  on  the  voluntary 
exercise  nf  our  faculties,  &c. 

To  restore  the  analogy,  the  mono,  in  a  great  measure,  should 
give  place  to  partially. 

Our  knowledge  of  it,  depends  partially,  if  not  entirely,  upon  the 
voluntary  exercise  of  our  faculties. 

The  last  instance  which  I  shall  give  in  illustration  of  the  want 
of  analogy  in  the  forms  of  monos  which  are  similar  in  ideas,  is 
found  in  the  latter  clause  of  the  same  sentence : — 

"On  the  voluntary  exercise  of ' our  faculties,  and  on  tlie 
helps  and  opportunities  afforded  us." 

On  the  voluntary  exercise  of  our  faculties,  and  on  a  judicious  im- 
provement of  our  helps,  and  opportunities. 
28* 


330  SYNTAX. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  RULE  XLIV. 

("Embracing  a  comparative  review)  (of  Murray's  Principles,) 
(and  those)  (of  Mr.  James  Brown's  Grammar.") 

As  the  mono,  "  of  Mr.  James  Brown's  Grammar"  is  analogous  in 
idea  to  the  mono,  "  of  Murray's  Principles,"  its  want  of  analogy  in 
form  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXIV. 

Rule ;  as,  {Of  Murray's)  {and Brown' s Principles.) 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [When  (both  vowels  are  heard,)  the  diphthong  is  called  pro- 
per;] (as)  {oi)  (in  voice.)  [When  (only  one  is  heard,)  it  is  called] 
(an  improper  diphthong;)  (as)  {ea)  (in  eagle.) — J.  Frost's  Gram- 
mar. 

2.  [A  sentence  may  be  grammatically  correct]  (which  is  not 
written  according)  (to  the  laws)  (of  Rhetoric.) — J.  Frost's  Gram- 
mar. 

3.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose,  as  is  sometimes  done,  that 
the  auxiliaries  are  mere  inventions,  introduced  into  the  language 
for  the  purpose  of  making  out  the  necessary  forms. — Hart's  Gram- 
mar. 

4.  It  would  be  an  equal  mistake,  (on  the  other  hand,)  (because 
these  compound  forms  may  be  analyzed,)  (and)  (traced)  (to  origi- 
nal independent  elements)  (in  the  language)  to  deny  their  present 
existence  as  compounds,  and  to  assert,  as  some  recent  gramma- 
rians have  done,  that  there  are  in  English  but  two  tenses,  the 
present  and  the  passed. — Hart's  Grammar. 

In  3,  there  are  no  parts  corresponding  to  the  monos  in  paren- 
thesis in  4. 

5.  [The  assertion  may  be  expressed  directly,]  (and)  (without 
limitation.) — Hart's  Grammar. 

[Here,  the  idea  which  is  expressed  by  directly,  should  be  ex- 
pressed in  an  uncordictive  mono  analogous  in  form  to  the  mono, 
without  limitation;  or,  the  idea  which  is  expressed  by  without  limi- 
tation, should  be  expressed  in  one  word.] 


LESSON  VI. 
Rule   XLV. 


As,  where  all  the  things  included  by  the 
noun  in  the  sub  mono,  must  be  compared  with 
those   mentioned   in   the   super    mono,    those 


SYNTAX.  331 

named  in  the  super  must  be  compared  with 
themselves  if  they  are  not  separated  from  those 
named  in  the  sub,  where  this  separation  is  not 
made  by  the  nature  of  the  things  themselves, 
it  should  be  made  by  the  use  of  other ;  as,  Me- 
thuselah was  older  than  any  other  man.  [Not, 
Methuselah  was  older  than  any  man.] 

Rule  XLVI. 

As,  where  no  things  which  are  not  included 
by  the  noun  in  the  sub  mono,  can  be  compared 
with  the  things  mentioned  in  the  super  mono, 
those  named  in  the  super,  cannot  be  compared 
with  themselves  if  they  are  separated  from  those 
named  in  the  sub  mono,  where  this  separation 
is  made  by  the  nature  of  the  things  themselves, 
other  should  not  be  used;  as,  Methuselah  was 
older  than  any  bird.  [Not,  older  than  any 
other  bird.] 

These  Rules  are  founded  upon  the  position  that  it  is  both  a 
grammatical,  and  a  logical  absurdity  to  compare  a  thing  with  itself. 
And,  although  they  interdict  the  use  of  what  is  denominated  by 
the  old  school  grammarians,  the  superlative  degree  of  comparison, 
they  may  be  more  valuable  than  though  they  sustained  it.  That 
the  use  of  the  superlative  degree  is  a  superlative  absurdity,  is  shown 
Under  page  285.  Hence  I  shall  do  little  more  here  than  to  refer 
the  pupil  to  this  page.  If  the  position  there  taken  is  tenable,  the 
following  expressions  are  bad : — 

1.  [Bunyan  was]  (the  greatest)  (of  all  allegorists.) 

2.  [Demosthenes  was]  (the  greatest)  (of  all  orators.) 

3.  [Shakspeare  was]  (the  first)  (of  all  dramatists.) 

The  absurdity  demonstrated. 

1.  All  the  things  which  are  included  by  the  noun  in  the  sub 
mono,  must  be  compared  with  those  mentioned  in  the  super  mono, 


332  SYNTAX. 

unless  there  is  a  separation  made.  But  Bunyan  is  included  by 
the  noun  [allegorisis)  in  the  sub  mono,  and  named  in  the  super,  and 
there  is  no  separation  made ;  therefore,  Bunyan  is  compared  with 

himself  ! 

Corrected.  „ 

1.  Bunyan  was  greater  than  any  oilier  allegorist. 
[But  not  greater  than  himself.] 

2.  Demosthenes  was  greater  than  any  oilier  orator. 

3.  Shakespeare  was  before  any  other  dramatist. 

[He  was  not,  however,  before  himself;  but  if  he  was 
before  all  dramatists,  it  follows  that  he  was  either  before 
himself  or  that  he  was  not  a  dramatist.  That  is  against 
reason — this  against  truth. .] 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XLV. 
[Jacob  loved  Joseph  more]  (than  he  loved  all  his  children.) 

As  Joseph  is  included  by  the  noun  in  the  sub  mono,  [children,) 
and  as  he  is  mentioned  in  the  super  mono,  and  not  separated  from 
the  class  composed  of  the  children  of  Jacob,  Joseph  is  compared 
with  himself,  which  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XLV. 

Rule ;  as,  Jacob  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his 

other  children. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XLYI. 

[This  knife  is  sharper]  (than  any  other  razor.) 

As  the  knife  is  not  included  by  the  noun  in  the  sub  mono,  and 
as  it  is  separated  from  the  razor  by  its  own  nature,  the  use  of 
other  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XLVI. 

Rule  • ;  as,    [This   knife   is   sharper]   (than   any 

razor.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [The  Bible  is  better]  (than  all  books.) 

2.  [Methuselah  was  older]  (than  any  man.) 

3.  [Samson  was  stronger]  (than  all  men.) 

4.  [Solomon  was  wiser]  (than  any  man.) 

5.  {The  Chinese  Empire  is  older]  (than  any  empire.) 

6.  [The  Russian  Empire  is  more  extensive]  (than  any  govern- 
ment.) 


SYNTAX.  333 

7.  [Washington  was]  (a  better  commander)  (than  any  general.) 

8.  The  Mississippi  river  is  longer]  (than  any  river. } 

9.  'Hope  is  the  most -constant]  (of  all  the  other  passions.)* 

10.  Sarah  is]  (the  best  grammarian)  (of  all  the  other  girls.) 

11.  Of  all  the  other  schools)  [this  has  the  best  regulations.] 

12.  [John  is]  (a  better  boy)  (than  Sarah.  )f 

13.  [The  English  language  has  a  greater  variety]  (of  expres- 
sion) (than  any  language.) 


lesson  vn. 


WHAT  WORDS,    MONOS,   AND   SIGNIFICANT  INFLECTIONS 
SHOULD   NOT   BE   USED. 

Rule  XLVII. 

Those  words,  monos,  and  inflections,  which, 
if  employed,  would  add  a  shade  of  thought,  in- 
consistent with  the  intended  import  of  the  sen- 
tence, should  not  be  used ;  as, 

1.  (jase  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun  with  respect  to 
the  other  words  in  a  sentence,  (the.) — Professor  Bullions' s 
English  Grammar. 

By  the  use  of  the,  Mr.  Bullions  compels  himself  to  say  that  case 
is  the  condition  of  a  noun  with  respect  to  all  the  words  but  the 
noun!  Hence,  where  there  are  twenty-nine  words  in  a  sentence 
besides  a  noun,  the  noun  is  in  the  nominative  case  to  twenty-nine 
words  1 

2.  Mr.  Brown  and  some  others  with  him  divide  verbs 
into  four  classes. — Bullions' s  English  Grammar. 

3.  Henry  gave  the  fullest  account. 

4.  He  filled  the  chiefs  offices  in  the  government. 

5.  Henry  is  the  most  perfect  gentleman  of  the  six. 

6.  Hewit  did  not  do  nothing. 

*  Hope  is  more  constant  than  any  other  passion. 

t  When  an  individual  is  compared  as  a  male,  the  one  with  whom  he  is  compared, 
must  be  a  male,  and  vice  versa;  as,  This  person  is  a  better  boy  than  James.  [Not, 
this  person  is  a  better  boy  than  Sarah.] 


334  SYNTAX. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  ly  Rule  XLVII. 

1.  [You  are  about  to  enter]  (upon  one)  (of  the  most  useful) 
(and  when)  (rightly  pursued,)  (one)  (of  the  most  interesting 
studies)  (in  the  whole  oircle)  (of  science.) — S.  Kirkham's  English 
Grammar. 

As  the  writer  does  not  intend  to  express  that  there  may  be 
several  which  are  the  most  interesting,  but  that  there  may  be  seve- 
ral that  are  equally  interesting,  the  use  of  the  monos,  {upon  one) 
(of  the  most  useful  studies,)  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XLVII. 

Rule ;  as,  [You  are  about  to  enter]  (upon  a  science) 

(as  useful,)  (and,  when)  (rightly  pursued)  (as  interesting  as  any 
study)  (in  the  whole  circle)  (of  science.) 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [He  purchased  a  philosophical  apparatus]  (in  London.) 

2.  [He  purchased  fifty  heads]  (of  cattle.) 

3.  She  looks  beautifully. 

4.  [He  writes  slowly,]  (and  exactly.) 

5.  The  animal  feels  smoothly. 

6.  Spelling  is  putting  letters  together  correctly,  so  as  to  form 
syllables  and  words. — Harts  Grammar. 

7.  [And  a  knowledge  (of  English  Grammar)  is  now  taught]  (as 
such)  (in  all  our  academies,)  (and)  (common  schools.) — Bullions 's 
English  Grammar. 

8.  [He  evinced  the  most  perfect  ignorance]  (of  language)  (in 
any)  (of  its  departments!) — A  New  York  Paper. 

9.  (Having  examined  the  Gradual  Reader)  (by  Mr.  Stevens,)  [I 
consider  it  well  worthy]  (of  adoption. )  i  (  ~ 

10.  (No  one  [I  think]  can  ever  examine  the  series)  (of  Grammars) 
(published  by  Dr.  Bullions,)  (without  a  deep  conviction)  (of  their 
superior  excellence.) — From  the  recommendation  of  the  Rev.  John 
Ludlow,  D.I).,  Provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

11.  It  is  rendered  more  certain. —  Webster's  Dictionary. 

12.  Giving  additional  assurance.—  Webster's  Dictionary. 


Rule  XLVIII. 

Two  negatives  should  not  be  used  in  the 
same  mono,  unless  one  is  a  mere  prefix  ;  as,  un> 
in,  dis,  non,  ily  &c. 

1.  But  he  was  not  unable  to  go. 

2.  He  did  not  speak  improperly. 


&*MUT 


SYNTAX.  335 

Not. 
Not,  when  used  with  only,  is  not  a  negative ;  as,  He  was 
not  only  not  at  church,  but  he  was  unable  to  be  there. 

No. 
No  is  not  a  negative  in  all  instances. 
"No,  they  could  not  bind  him  even  with  chains." 
No  is  here  used  in  the  sense  of  nay,  and  has  the  import 
of  Yes  more. 

"Nay,  more,  they  could  not  bind  him  even  with  chains." 


Rule  XLIX. 

The  word,  the  inflection,  or  the  mono,  which, 
if  employed,  would  merely  repeat,  an  idea 
already  clearly  expressed,  should  not  be  used ; 
as; 

Henry  wished  to  return  bach.  The  lad  has  got  a  knife  in 
his  hand. 

Back  is  found  in  return — and  got,  in  has. 

Henry  wished  to  return.  The  lad  has  a  knife  in  his  hand — 
Back — Got. 

This  machine  is  the  most  foolishes^  contrivance  which  has 
ever  been  seen. 

As  est  repeats  the  same  idea  which  is  expressed  by  most, 
est  should  be  omitted. 

But  before  we  enter  on  the  consideration  of  the  doctrines 
of  religion,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  display  its 
evidence. — Samuel  Stanhope  Smith,  D.D.,  President  of 
Princeton  College,  1809. 

As  the  mono,  "  in  the  first  place,"  is  synonymous  with 
the  adverb,  before,  it  adds  nothing  to  the  sentence ;  hence, 
it  should  not  be  used : 

But  be/ore  we  enter  on  the  consideration  of  the  doctrines 
of  religion,  it  is  necessary  to  display  its  evidence,  (in  the 
first  place.) 

NOTE. 
The  word,  or  the  mono,  which,  if  employed,  would  neither 


336  SYNTAX. 

repeat  the  expression  of  any  idea,  nor  in  any  way  add  to, 
nor  change  the  import  of,  the  sentence,  should  not  be  used ; 
as,  It  would  seem  so,  indeed. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  XLIX. 

Henry  wished  to  return  back. 
As  bach  merely  represents  an  idea  which  is  clearly  expressed 
by  return,  its  use  is  a  violation  of  Rule  XLIX. 
Rule ;  as,  Henry  wished  to  return. 

EXERCISES, 

Under  the  Rule  and  the  Note. 

1.  [It  would  seem  that]  (he  is  now)  (in  this  city.) 

2.  [I  had  rather  walk]  (than     ,     ,     ride.) 

3.  Henry  is  a  warming  himself. 

4.  James  is  a  hunting  rabbits. 

5.  [A  verb  (in  the  infinitive  mood)  must  be  (in  the  present 
tense)  when]  (it  expresses  what)  (is  contemporary)  (in  point)  (of 
time)  (with  its  governing  verb,)  (or)  (subsequent)  (to  it.) — P.  Bul- 
lions''s  English  Grammar. 

6.  (As  an  art,)  [it  teaches  the  right  method]  (of  applying) 
(these  principles)  (to  a  particular  language,)  (so  as  thereby  to 
express  our  thoughts)  (in  a  correct)  (and)  (proper  manner,)  (ac- 
cording) (to  established  usage.) — P.  Bullions' 8  English  Grammar. 

7.  [He  has  got  a  knife]  (in  his  hand.) 

8.  [I  did  not  see  him]  (in  here.) 

9.  [Brother  will  return]  (the  latter  end)  (of  March.) 

10.  He  plunged  down]  (into  the  water.) 

11.  "Before  (I  do  that)  I  must  first  finish  this.] 

12.  (From  whence)  [came  he?] 

13.  [John  he  was  here]  (last  week.) 

14.  The  bird  it  flew  away. 

15.  [James  Buchanan  he  went]  (to  Congress.) 

16.  [George  M.  Dallas  he  was]  (Vice  President.)         .      .   ^ 

17.  Henry  Clay  will  he  ever  be  President  ? 

18.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  to  be  proper,  &c. — Preface  to  Bul- 
lions'* Gram. 

19.  [But  it  would  seem]  (that)  (a  multitude)  (of  bad)  (or  indif- 
ferent writers,)  have  judged  themselves  qualified  to  teach  the  art) 
(of  speaking)  (and)  (writing  well.) — Preface  to  G.  Brown's  Gram. 

20.  [The  person  (who  is  acquainted)  (with  the  science)  (of  gram- 
mar) is  never]  (at  a  loss)  (what  word  to  use)  (or)  (how  to  place 
it)  (in  order)  (to  express  himself)  (correctly.) — J.  Frost's  Gram. 

21.  This  brings  us  back  to  the  point  from  which  we  started ; 
and  enables  us  to  show  that  (the  expression  (above  cited)  is  incor- 
rect) (and)  (ungrammatical.) — Introduction  to  J.  Frost's  Gram. 


SYNTAX.  337 


Rule  L. 


Words  which,  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
subject,  oppose  each  other,  should  have  no  con- 
structive relation  one  with  another ;  as, 

Dead  man;  Dead  men's  bones;  Do  you  see  that  dead 
bird  f  We  had  not  gone  far  before  we  found  a  dead  horse. 

A  horse  is  necessarily  a  living  creature :  hence,  unless  a 
horse  can  be  both  dead,  and  alive,  at  the  same  moment,  the 
words,  dead,  and  horse,  are  rendered  reciprocally  opponent, 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  theme. 

Rule  LI. 

Branch  words  expressive  of  ideas  clearly  im- 
plied in  their  supers,  should  not  be  used  ;  as, 

A  living  man;  The  horse  is  alive;  Running  stream; 
Liquid  stream. 

In  several  of  the  appellations  appended  to  the  word,  God, 
this  Rule  is  violated;  as,  Gracious  God;  Great,  and  good 
God. 

The  ideas  expressed  by  gracious,  great,  and  good,  are 
clearly  implied  in  the  word,  God,  itself. 


LESSON  VIII. 

THEME, 


A  theme  is  any  thing  which  is  presented  to  the  mind ;  as, 
virtue,  vice,  pain,  snow,  heat,  coldness,  Thomas,  Macaulay, 
it,  I  have  brought  my  son. 

Themes  are.  simple,  and  compound.  , 

1.  A  simple  theme  is  one  which  has  no  expressed  pro- 
perties ;  as,  apple,  books,  hat,  John,  I,  thou,  Thomas,  Ma- 
caulay, history,  thee. 

29 


338  SYNTAX. 

2.  A  compound  theme  is  one  which  has  one,  or  more  ex- 
pressed properties,  or  circumstances;  as,  Ripe  apples;  These 
books;  Silk  hats;  That  John;  I  laugh;  Thou  art  sick; 
Macaulay's  history ;  Master,  I  have  brought  unto  thee  my 
son  which  hath  a  dumb  spirit;  Nathan  said  unto  David, 
Thou  art  the  man. 

It  is  not  often  that  the  grammarian  has  any  thing  to  do 
with  themes  in  their  compound  character.  His  province 
generally  requires  him  to  take  every  theme  as  a  simple  one. 
Hence,  the  themes  with  which  the  grammarian  is  concerned 
are  those  only,  which  are  presented  to  the  mind  by  means 
of  nouns,  and  pronouns;  as,  Master,  I  have  brought  unto 
thee  my  son  which  hath  a  dumb  spirit.  [Master,  I,  thee, 
son,  which,  spirit.] 

That  the  pupil  may  not  confound  the  theme  with  the  word  by 
which  it  is  denoted,  it  may  be  well  to  say  here,  that  the  theme  is 
the  thing  itself ;  as,  an  apple. 


DIVISION  OF  THEMES. 

Themes,  like  their  names,  are  divided  into  cordictive^  and 
uncordictive. 

I.   The  Cordictive  Theme. 

The  cordictive  theme  is  the  life  source*  of  the  cordiction, 
or  speech,  and  is  denoted  by  a  cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun ; 
as,  John  has  commenced  his  school;  (Master,)  [/  have 
brought  (unto  thee)  my  son]  (which  hath  a  dumb  spirit.) — 
[John 7  Iy  which. .] 

II.  The  Uncordictive  Theme. 

The  uncordictive  theme  is  one  which  is  not  the  life  source 
of  the  diction  of  the  mono,  and  is  denoted  by  the  uncordic- 
tive noun,  or  pronoun ;  as,  John  has  commenced  his  school; 
(Master,*)  [I  have  brought  (unto  thee)  my  son"]  (which  hath 
a  dumb  spirit.) 


*  Cor,  the  heart,  the  seat  of  life,  and  dictio,  speech. 


SYNTAX.  339 

As  there  is  one  noun,  or  one  pronoun  in  every  mono  iu 
which  there  is  diction,  speech,  that  aids  in  making  the  dic- 
tion, or  speech,  so  there  is  one  theme  in  every  mono  where 
there  is  diction,  or  speech,  which  is  the  heart,  the  seat,  of 
the  diction,  or  speech,  of  the  mono. 

Speech  is  formed  by  the  syllabanes,  John  has  commenced; 
I  have  brouglu  ;  and  which  hath.  Hence,  the  themes,  school, 
Master,  thee,  son,  and  spirit,  are  not  the  heart,  the  seat,  of 
the  diction  here  formed.  But,  as  there  could  be  no  speech 
here  without  John,  me,  and  tchich,  these  themes  are  the 
I i" at,  the  seat,  of  the  speech  of  these  syllabanes. 

The  old  school  grammarians  attempt  to  divide  things  into  sub- 
jects, and  objects.  But  as  this  division  is  a  distinction  without  a. 
difference,  I  cannot  consent  to  adopt  it.  In  the  expression,  The 
world  was  created  by  God,  God  4s  as  much  the  subject  as  is  the 
world.  It  is  predicated  of  God,  that  he  created  the  world ;  and  it 
is  predicated  of  the  world,  that  it  was  created  by  him-  No  one 
can  deny  this  position.  If,  then,  it  is  here  predicated  of  God,  that 
he  created  the  world,  is  he  not  a. subject? 

"  A  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  predicated,**  say  the 
old  school  grammarians ;  as,  The  world  was  made  by  God. 

Here,  it  is  pretended  that  the  world  is  the  only  subject.  But  is  it 
not  here  said  of  God  that  he  ereated  the  world  ? 

In  the  syllabane,  John  is  in  the  house,  nothing  is  predicated  of 
the  house.  But,  in  the  «entence,  The  house  was  built  by  John,  it  is 
as  clearly  predicated  of  John  that  he  built  the  house,  as  it  is  of 
the  house  that  it  was  built  by  John. 

The  preceding  definition  of  a  subject,  however,  is  not  the  true 
one.  "A  subject,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  ''is  that  on  which  some 
mental  or  material  operation  is  performed." 

Hence,  every  thing  to  which  attention  is  directed,  becomes  a 
subject;  as  the  book  in  the  following  sentence; — 

I  read  the  book." 

Ilenoe,  too,  every  thing  wliicfe  is  acted  upoa  by  any  agent  what- 
ever, becomes  a  subject;  as,  John  hurt  Joseph. — £See  the  Appeal, 
on  Subjects,  and  Objects.] 


Rule  LIL 

In  general,  where  a  theme  is  mentioned  in 
the  satne  sentence  more  than  once,  it  should  be 
uniformly  cordictive,  or  uniformly  uncordic- 
tive;  as, 


340  SYNTAX. 

1.  /  owe  James ;  and  /  must  pay  him.  [Not,  I  owe 
James ;  and  he  must  be  paid  by  me.] 

2.  A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard ;  and  he  set  a  hedge 
about  it;  and  he  digged  a  place  for  the  wine  vat;  and  he 
built  a  tower ;  and  he  let  it  out  to  husbandmen ;  and  he 
went  into  a  far  country.  [Not,  A  certain  man  planted  a 
vineyard;  and  a  hedge  was  set  about  it  by  him,  &c] 

3.  And  the  young  men  arose,  wound  him  up,  and  carried 
Mm  out,  and  buried  him. 

The  young  men  are  the  cordictive  theme,  and  Ananias  is 
the  uncordictive  theme.  Neither  is  changed,  but  both  ex- 
hausted.    A  change  of  either  would  mar  the  sentence ;  as, 

And  the  young  men  arose,  and  wound  him  up;  and  he 
was  carried  out,  and  buried  by  them. 

4.  And  the  young  men  came  in,  found  her  dead,  and  carried 
her  forth,  and  buried  her  by  her  husband. 

This  sentence,  too,  has  a  perfect  uniformity  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  its  themes,  which  beautifies  it  to  a  high  degree. 

Note. — Rule  LII.  has  a  few  exceptions ;  as,  Master,  I  have 
brought  unto  thee  my  son  {which  hath  a  dumb  spirit.) 

Here  the  son  is  presented  in  one  mono  as  an  uncordictive,  but  in 
another  as  a  cordictive,  theme.    - 

In  sentences  in  which  the  predicate  mono  occurs,  the  same 
theme  is  often  made  both  cordictive,  and  uncordictive  ;  as,  [John  is] 
(the  boy.) 

In  the  trone,  John  is  cordictive — in  the  clad,  he  is  uncordictive. 


I.  The  Relation  of  a  Theme. 

The  relation  of  a  theme  respects  its  objective  relation  to 
the  pros-o-chist,  to  the  mind,  under  whose  notice  the  theme 
is  placed. 

II.  The  Number  of  a  Theme. 

The  number  of  a  theme  respects  its  unity,  or  its  plurality. 


SYNTAX.  341 

Rule  LIII. 

The  same  theme  should  be  uniformly  repre- 
sented to  bear  the  same  objective  relation  to 
the pros-o-chist,  through  the  whole  discourse ;  as, 

/  have  not  undertaken  this  volume  under  the  expectation 
that  /  shall  be  able  to  satisfy  ail  my  readers.  /  shall  be 
satisfied  if  /please  one  half  of  them.  [Not,  the  audior  will 
be  satisfied  if  he  pleases  one  half  of  them.] 

Rule  UV. 

The  same  theme  should  be  uniformly  repre- 
sented to  have  the  same  number  through  the 
whole  discourse ;  as, 

7"  have  not  undertaken  this  volume  under  the  expectation 
of  pleasing  all  mj  readers.  /  shall  be  satisfied  if  /  please 
one  half  of  them.  [Not,  We  shall  be  satisfied  if  we  please 
one  half  of  them.] 

Note. — To  these  Rales  there  are  a  few  exceptions.  For  ex- 
ample, 

"  7,  Paul."     [It  is]  (they.) 

While  I  represents  that  the  theme  sustains  the  par-e-theme  rela- 
tion to  the  pros-o-chist,  Paul  represents  that  it  bears  the  panta- 
tkeme  relation  to  the  pros-o-chist. 

And  while  the  word,  it,  represents  the  theme  to  have  the  singu- 
lar number,  the  pronoun,  they,  represents  the  same  theme  to  have 
the  plural. 

But  the  principles  to  which  these,  and  a  few  other  instances  form 
exceptions,  are  important;  hence,  they  should  be  well  understood 
by  the  learner. 

Notb. — Words  which  have  nearly  the  same  sounds,  should  not 
be  used  in  the  same  prose  sentence ;  as, 

To  his  lasting  honour  it  must  be  mentioned  that  he  attempted 
to  save  those  victims  whose  fate  has  left  the  deepest  stain  both  on 
the  Whig,  and  on  the  Tory  name. — Macaulay's  History  of  England. 

[That  he  attempted  to  save  those  victims  whose  fate  has  left  the 
deepest  reproach  both  on  the  Whig,  and  on  the  Tory  name.] 

29* 


342  SYNTAX. 


Kule  LV. 


Every  sentence  should  have  the  words,  and 
the  construction  which  a  direct,  and  a  clear  ex- 
pression of  the  writer's  ideas  requires ;  as, 

When  the  unclean  spirit  has  gone  out  of  a  man,  tlte  spirit 
walketh  through  dry  places,  seeking  rest,  but  finding  none. 

As  this  sentence  is  usually  written,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  decide 
what  is  its  exact  import : — 

"  When  the  unclean  spirit  is  gone  out  of  a  man,  he  walk- 
eth through  dry  places  seeking  rest,  and  findeth  none." 

Here  the  reader  must  decide,  if  he  can,  whether  the  pronoun, 
he,  is  synonymous  with  the  noun,  man,  or  with  the  noun,  spirit. 

But,  as  the  construction  of  the  sentence  renders  him  no  aid  in 
this  task,  he  must  resort  to  the  nature  of  the  case,  which  demon- 
strates the  existence  of  a  gross  impropriety  in  the  grammar  of  the 
paragraph. 

It  is  the  province  of  the  sentence  to  show  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject— not  the  province  of  the  subject  to  explain  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence. 

If  we  are  to  learn  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  from  the  nature  of 
the  subject  on  which  it  is  written,  one  sentence  must  be  as  plain 
as  another.  Besides,  if  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  is  to  be  derived 
from  the  subject  under  consideration,  the  same  sentence  must  have 
several  meanings  :  different  men  have  different  views  of  the  same 
thing.  If  writers  wish  to  be  understood,  they  should  employ  the 
construction,  and  the  words  which  a  direct,  and  a  clear  expression 
of  their  meaning  requires.  It  is  better  to  say,  A  negro's  teeth  are 
white,  than  it  is  to  say,  A  negro  is  white  in  his  teeth. 

In  the  first  construction,  the  whiteness  is  ascribed  to  the  negro's 
teeth;  in  the  second,  it  is  ascribed  to  the  negro  himself! 

It  is  better  to  say,  The  Board  of  Presbyterian  Publications,  than 
it  is  to  say,  The  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication. 

It  does  not  follow  that  a  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication,  is 
confined  to  the  publication  of  Presbyterian  works.  Hence,  if  the 
intention  is  to  indicate  by  the  title,  that  the  Board  is  restricted  to 
the  publication  of  Presbyterian  books,  the  adjective  should  be 
placed  before  publications ;  as,  j 

The  Board  of  Presbyterian  Publications. 

Still,  the  other  construction  may  afford  more  convenience  in 
speaking  of  the  collective  body. 


SYNTAX.  343 

When  the  unclean  spirit  is  gone  out  of  a  man,  he  walketh 
through  dry  places,  seeking  rest,  and  findeth  none. 

Now,  if  the  man  walked  through  dry  places,  the  sentence  might 
be  as  follows : — 

When  the  unclean  spirit  has  gone  out  of  a  man,  tJie  man 
walketh  through  dry  places,  seeking  rest,  but  finding  none. 

But  if  the  spirit  walked,  the  sentence  might  be  thus : — 

When  the  unclean  spirit  has  gone  out  of  a  man,  the  spirit 
walketh  through  dry  places,  seeking  rest,  but  finding  none. 

But  there  is  another  means  by  which  the  exact  truth  can  be  ex- 
pressed in  this  instance :  the  plural  may  be  substituted  for  the 
singular. 

1.  When  the  unclean  spirit  goeth  out  of  men,  he  walketh 
through  dry  places,  seeking  rest,  but  finding  none. 

2.  When  the  unclean  spirit  goeth  out  of  men,  they  walk 
through  dry  places,  seeking  rest,  but  finding  none. 

The  substitution  of  the  uni  for  the  plus,  and  the  plus  for  the  uni, 
is  common  in  all  languages.  In  the  Latin,  anglus  for  anglis;  nos 
for  ego,  &c. 

In  the  following,  the  word,  cities,  is  used  for  city : — 

"  And  Jephtha  was  buried  in  the  cities  of  Gilead/' 

In  the  following,  the  word,  thieves,  is  used  for  thief: — 

"  The  thieves  also  which  were  crucified  with  him,  up- 
braided him." 

Only  one  of  the  two  thieves  upbraided  Christ. 

In  the  following,  Cicero  is  speaking  of  himself  only: — 

"  We  deceived  the  people,  and  seemed  orators" 


Rule  LV.  (Repeated.) 

Every  sentence  should  have  the  words,  and 
the  construction  which  a  direct,  and  a  clear  ex- 
pression of  the  writer's  meaning  requires;  as, 

1.  Where  the  terminating  y  follows  a  consonant,  an  addi- 
tional syllable  substitutes  i  for  the  y ;  as,  beauty,  beau^*- 
fuh 


344  SYNTAX. 

2,  The  rules,  and  definitions  to  be  memorized,  are  printed 
on  a  large  italic  type. 

The  following  sentences,  taken  from  Hart's  Grammar,  are  viola- 
tions of  this  Rule  : — 

(1.)  "  Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  y  into  i  on  taking  an  additional  syllable." 

Here,  the  construction  clearly  indicates  that  the  words  which  end 
with  y,  are  preceded  by  a  consonant !  That  this  is  true,  may  be 
demonstrated  by  a  little  attention  to  the  following  sentence,  taken 
from  the  same  page  of  Hart's  Grammar : — 

"  Words  ending  in  silent  e,  drop  e  on  taking  an  additional 
syllable." 

As  in  this  sentence  it  is  the  words  which  drop  the  silent  e,  so  in 
the  other,  it  is  the  words  which  are  preceded  by  a  consonant ! 

u  Words  ending  in  II,  drop  one  I  on  taking  an  additional 
syllable." — Harts  Grammar. 

What  drops  one  I  ?    The  words  ending  in  11,  drop  one  I. 

"  Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant." — Harts 
Grammar. 

What  is  preceded  by  a  consonant  ?  If  one  can  be  allowed  to 
derive  the  answer  to  this  interrogation  from  the  construction  of 
the  sentence,  he  will  say,  the  words  ending  in  y,  are  preceded. 

"  Words  ending  in  11  drop  one  I,"  &c. 

Now,  if  in  this  sentence,  drop  refers  to  words,  does  not  preceded 
in  the  following : — 

"  Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  i  on  taking  an  additional  syllable." 

What  is  preceded  by  a  consonant  ?  True,  the  nature  of  the  case 
replies  that  y  is  preceded.  But,  then,  the  construction  of  the  sen- 
tence replies  that  the  words  are  preceded. 

A  negro  is  white  in  his  teeth.  .  . 

The  construction  of  this  sentence  is  not  right.  Why  ?  Is  the 
construction  bad  because  the  sentence  cannot  be  understood? 
No.  The  sentence  can  be  understood  with  ease.  The  construction 
does  not  agree  with  the  nature  of  the  theme ;  hence  it  is  wrong. 
The  construction  which  is  opposed  to  the  nature  of  the  subject,  is 
bad.  The  law  is,  that  the  construction  of  the  sentence  must  corre- 
spond to  the  nature  of  the  subject  on  which  it  treats.  Why,  if  a 
sentence  is  good  because  the  meaning  of  its  author  can  be  clearly 
comprehended,  what  can  be  said  against  the  following  ? 


SYNTAX.  345 

Give  /some  apples;  Me  is  very  thirsty,  me  wants  waters! 

(2.)  "  The  most  important  rules  and  definitions  are  printed 
in  large  type,  italicized."— Hart's  Grammar. 

As  we  do  not  print  in,  but  on  type,  this  sentence  is  a  violation 
of  Rule  LV.  To  speak  of  printing  a  book  in  type,  is  as  improper 
as  it  is  to  speak  of  writing  a  book  on  a  good  style.  We  print  on 
type,  but  we  write  in  a  style.  And,  although  it  may  be  said  that 
type  are  italicized,  yet  the  usage  of  good  writers  is  opposed  to  the 
expression.  We  speak  of  italicizing  words — but  we  distinguish  type 
as  italic,  roman,  &c. 

(3.)  "  Spelling  is  putting  letters  together  correctly,  so  as 
to  form  syllables  and  words." — Hart's  Grammar. 

Here,  Mr.  Hart  conveys  the  idea  that  there  are  several  correct 
Ways  in  which  letters  may  be  put  together;  but  that  only  one 
of  the  correct  ways,  is  spelling  !  If  the  letters  are  put  together  i» 
that  correct  way  which  makes  syllables,  and  words,  the  process  is 
spelling  I  But,  if  the  letters  are  put  together  in  a  correct  way 
which  does  not  make  syllables,  and  words,  the  process  is  not 
spelling  I 

A  Substitute. 

Spelling  is  the  just  formation  of  syllables,  and  words  from 

letters. 

[The  use  (of  this  verb)  is  so  extensive]  (and  incorporated) 
(into  so  many  peculiar  phrases)  (that)  (it  is  not  easy)  (to  re- 
duce its  signification.) — Webster's  Dictionary. 

What  is  incorporated  ?  Is  the  verb,  or  is  the  use  of  the  verb, 
incorporated  into  so  many  peculiar  phrases  ?  The  construction  re- 
plies that  the  use  is  incorporated  ! 

A  Substitute. 

[This  verb  is  so  extensively  used,  (and  incorporated)  (into 
so  many  peculiar  phrases)  (that)  it  is  not  easy  to  give  its 
exact  signification.] 

It  is  not  the  province  of  the  grammarian  to  give  law  to 
language,  but  to  teach  it. — Goold  Brown's  Grammar. 

As  this  construction  renders  it  uncertain  whether  the  pronoun, 
it,  after  teach,  is  synonymous  witli  law,  or  language,  the  ideas  of 
the  writer  are  not  clearly  expressed. 

It  is  perfectly  proper  to  speak  of  teaching  the  law,  the  grammar 
of  the  language ;  and  it  is  equally  as  good  to  speak  of  teaching  the 


346  SYNTAX. 

language  itself.  If  the  author  intends  to  speak  of  teaching  the  law, 
the  grammar  of  the  language,  the  sentence  should  be  constructed 
in  a  way  which  will  render  it  impossible  for  the  pronoun,  it,  to 
convey  any  allusion  to  language  : 

It  is  the  province  of  the  grammarian,  not  to  give,  but  to 
teach  the  law  of  the  language. 

But,  if  the  author  means  to  say  that  it  is  the  province  of  the 
grammarian  to  teach  the  language,  the  sentence  should  be  con- 
structed as  follows : — 

It  is  the  province  of  the  grammarian,  not  to  give  the  lata, 
but  to  teach  the  language  according  to  it. 

And  to  furnish  a  test  whether  he  is  sufficiently  prepared 
for  recitation,  which  he  cannot  be  unless  he  can  furnish  a 
correct,  and  prompt  answer  to  the  question  proposed. — Dr. 
Peter  Bullions' s  English  Grammar. 

This  sentence  may  be  comprehended  from  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject on  which  it  treats.  That  is,  the  author's  ideas  may  be  guessed 
at !  But,  as  a  sentence  which  is  grammatical  in  all  respects,  never 
imposes  upon  its  reader  the  task  of  deciding  its  meaning  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  and  as  this  sentence  does  impose  upon  its 
reader  this  task,  it  difFers  from  a  correct  one.  The  following  part 
of  this  syllabane,  is  a  great  curiosity : — 

u  which  he  cannot  be  unless  he  can  furnish  a  cor- 
rect, and  prompt  answer  to  the  question  proposed." 

Though  the  general  sense  of  this  assemblage  of  words  may  be 
conjectured  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  it  is  not  probable  that 
even  Mr.  Bullions  himself  can  give  any  grammatical  analysis  of  it. 
The  word,  which,  is  a  relative  pronoun  without  even  an  antecedent ; 
and,  as  it  has  no  verb,  nor  any  preposition,  it  is  without  a  case  also. 
I  have  invoked  the  aid  of  several  old  school  grammarians  to  enable 
me  to  dispose  of  this  relative  ;  but,  as  they  uniformly  call  it  an 
adverbial  phrase,  I  have  not  been  willing  to  adopt  their  views.  The 
learned  ones  upon  whom  I  have  depended  to  help  me  out  of  this 
difficulty,  say  that  which  stands  for  all  the  parts  of  the  verbal 
mass  which  precedes  it ;  hence,  it  is  a  phrase  !  They  say  that  it  is 
an  adverb  because,  like  several  adverbs  in  English,  it  is  independent 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence  ! 

Why  is  it  that  no  old  school  grammarian  writes  with  gramma- 
tical precision  ?  It  is  because  the  old  theory  of  English  Grammar 
does  not  treat  of  the  constructive  principles  of  the  English  language. 
No  man  can  use  a  language  with  propriety,  who  has  not  studied 
its  constructive  principles  with  care.  But  he  that  studies  the 
grammar  of  Mr.  Murray  only,  does  not  study  the  constructive  prin- 
ciples of  the  English  language  at  all.     And,  as  the  old  school 


SYNTAX.  347 

grammarians  depend  solely  upon  Murray,  in  one  form  or  in 
another,  when  they  come  to  write,  they  find  themselves  without  a 
true  knowledge  of  the  grammar  of  their  own  vernacular  tongue. 
In  support  of  this  truth,  I  give  the  following  sentence,  written  by 
Murray  himself: — 

Monosyllables  ending  with  /,  I,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  final  consonant. — Murray's  Grammar,  by 
Murray  himself. 

This  sentence  reveals  the  true  source  of  the  improper  construc- 
tion of  the  following  by  Mr.  Hart : — 

Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  i,  on  taking  an  additional  syllable. — Murray's  Gram- 
mar, by  Hart ! 

A  Substitute  for  Murray's. 

Where  a  single  vowel  precedes  f  I,  or  s,  at  the  end  of  a 
monosyllable,  f  I,  or  s  is  doubled  j  as,  staff,  mill,  pass. 

A  Substitute  for  Hart's. 

Where  the  terminating  y  follows  a  consonant,  an  addi- 
tional syllable  substitutes  an  i  for  the  y  ;  as,  beauty,  beau- 
tiful. 


Rule  LVI. 

The  thing  which  is  mentioned  as  an  index 
to  another,  should  be  highly  distinguished,  and 
closely,  and  exclusively  related  to  the  thing  to 
which  a  reference  is  intended ;  as, 

1.  "  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah."     .* 

The  sceptre  bears  a  close  index  relation  to  kings,  or  kingly 
governments ;  and  Judah  bears  a  close  index  relation  to  the  royal 
house  which  he  occupied.  Hence,  the  sentence  means  that  kings 
shall  not  cease  to  occupy  the  house  of  Judah. 

2.  "He  bearcth  not  the  sword  in  vain." 

The  sword  is  mentioned  as  an  index  to  military  authority.  Hence, 
the  sentence  signifies  that  he  does  not  exercise  martial  power,  or 
authority  in  vain. 


348  SYNTAX. 

3.  "That  at  the  name  of  Jesus,  every  knee  should  bow." 

Here,  the  name  is  mentioned  as  an  index  to  Jesus  himself;  for, 
although  the  mere  name  is  used,  the  real  being  to  whom  this  name 
belongs,  is  meant.  But  did  not  the  name  here  mentioned  belong 
exclusively  to  Jesus,  its  use  here  would  be  a  gross  infraction  of 
Rule  LVI.  The  following  is  an  instance  of  grossly  bad  Eng- 
lish : — 

4.  A  noun,  or  pronoun  addressed,  and  not  the  subject  of  any 
verb,  is  in  the  nominative  ease  independent. — Hart's  Gram- 
mar. 

As  the  word,  name,  as  used  in  the  preceding  quotation,  must  be 
included  by  the  phrase,  "nouns  and  pronouns,"  if  the  figure  em- 
ployed by  Mr.  Hart,  is  proper,  the  phrase  may  be  substituted  for 
the  word,  name,  in  the  following : — 

"That  at  the  name  of  Jesus,  every  knee  shall  bow." 
That  at  the  nouns  and  pronouns  addressed,  every  knee 
should  bow. 

To  justify  the  figure  which  Mr.  Hart  uses,  the  words  that  are 
denominated  nouns,  and  pronouns,  should  be  highly  distinguished  by 
the  fame  of  the  themes  to  which  they  are  applied — be  individualized, 
and  each  applied  to  a  particular  theme  whose  fame  has  been  great 
enough  to  impart  a  high  distinction  to  the  individual  word  which 
has  become  its  name. 

But  are  the  themes  to  which  nouns,  and  pronouns,  in-general,  are 
applied,  at  all  famous  ?  What  is  there  in  the  sentence  by  Mr.  Hart 
which  indicates  that  these  themes  possess  -great  fame  ?  "Why, 
there  is  the  intimation  in  this  sentence,  that  these  themes  are  ren- 
dered famous  from  the  fact  that  they  are  addressed!  Hence  the  de- 
gree of  fame  which  a  mere  verbal  address  imparts  to  the  person 
addressed,  is  the  only  basis  on  which  Mr.  Hart  substitutes  the 
name  of  the  person  for  the  person  himself! 

"  Nouns,  and  pronouns  addressed  are  in  the  nominative 
case  independent  I" 

But  have  nouns,  and  pronouns  ears,  that  one  can  be  justified  in 
speaking  of  them  as  the  themes  addressed  ?  Does  any  man  speak 
to  a  mere  word?  Has  a  word  any  properties  which  favour  the 
idea  that  it  can  be  turned  into  a  person  ? 

True,  there  is  something  somewhere  like  the  following : — 

"JSvery  tongue  shall  call  on  thy  name." 

But  the  fame  of  the  being  here  referred  to,  is  so  great,  and 
general,  that  his  very  name  has  become  so  substantive  that  it  can 
be  taken  almost  alone. 

Why  is  it  that  the  sword  is  mentioned  as  an  index  to  war  ?    Be- 


SYNTAX.  349 

cause  the  sword  is  far  famed  for  its  exclusive  use  in  battle.  But 
does  the  mere  fact  of  addressing  John  render  him  so  famous  that 
we  can  substitute  his  name  for  his  person  f 


Rule  LVII. 

If,  by  abridging  a  verb  of  its  duo  power, 
more  words  are  required  to  express  the  same 
ideas,  the  verb  should  be  allowed  to  exert  its 
duo  power  in  all  cases  where  no  particular  ad- 
vantage can  be  gained  by  abridging  it  of  this 
power;  as, 

God  created  the  world.  [Not,  the  world  was  created  by 
God.] 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LVII. 

This  doctrine  was  preached  by  John  Calvin. 

As  by  abridging  "preached"  of  its  duo  power,  two  more  words 
are  required  to  express  the  intended  ideas,  and  as  no  particular 
advantage  is  gained  by  the  abridgment  of  this  power,  the  act  is  a 
violation  of  the  Rule. 

Rule -;  as,  John  Calvin  preached  this  doctrine. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  These  boys  had  been  taught  by  me. 

2.  Our  army  was  then  commanded  by  General  Taylor. 

3.  We  have  been  called  upon  by  our  friends. 

4.  My  son  has  been  taught  by  his  sister. 

6.  Henry  was  loved  by  all  by  whom  he  was  known. 

6.  The  church  has  many  times  been  compared  by  divines  to 
that  ark  of  which  we  read  in  the  book  of  Genesis. — Macaulay's 
History  of  England. 

Rule  LVILT. 

The  use  of  words,  and  constructions  which 
would  produce  an  intolerable  cacophony,  should 
be  avoided ;  as, 

30 


350  SYNTAX. 

1.  "  These  should  be  committed  to  memory  the  first  time 
of  going  through  the  book." 

2.  "  They  are  scarcely  less  important  than  the  previous, 
and  it  may  be  a  matter  of  some  doubt,  whether  they  should 
not  be  learned  the  first  time  of  going  through/' — Hart's 
Grammar. 

Corrected. 

1.  The  pupil  should  memorize  these  on  his  first  passage 
through  the  book. 

2.  Whether  the  pupil  should  not  learn  them  on  his  first 
passage  through  the  book. 

[Although  the  first  part  of  the  second  sentence  is  bad,  the  errow 
■which  mar  it,  do  not  violate  Rule  L VIII.] 

REMARK. 

The  use  of  constructions  which  throw  the 
parts  of  the  sentence,  and  the  ideas  of  the 
author,  into  a  chaotic  state,  should  be  avoided ; 
as, 

1.  "The  nominative  case  is  that  in  which  something  is 
asserted  of  the  noun" 

2.  li  The  possessive  case  is  that  in  which  something  belongs 
to  the  noun. 

3.  uThe  objective  case  is  that  in  which  the  noun  is  the  ob- 
ject of  some  verb  or  preposition." — Hart's  Grammar. 

Corrected. 

1.  The  nominative  is  the  case  in  which  the  noun  is  placed 
when  something  is  asserted  of  it.  ' 

2.  The  possessive  is  the  case  in  which  the  noun  is  placed 
when  something  belongs  to  it. 

3.  The  objective  is  the  case  in  which  the  noun  is  placed 
when  it  is  the  object  of  a  verb,  or  a  preposition. 

REMARK. 

I  do  not  know,  in  this  attempt  to  correct  these  sentences,  that  I 
have  done  justice  to  Mr.  Hart.     I  cannot  comprehend  him. 


6YNTAX.  351 


LESSON  IX. 


NOTATION  OF  MONOS,  AND  SENTENCES. 

Rule  LIX. 

Every  mono  should  have  all  its  words,  and 
every  sentence,  all  its  monos,  expressed,  where 
the  implenary  state  of  either,  would  produce  am- 
biguity,  or  cacophony  ;  as, 

1.  "  And  they  searched  the  Scriptures  daily,  whether 
these  things  were  so." 

[The  demimono,  to  see,  would  improve  the  euphony  of  the  sen- 
tence.] 

2.  "Where  is  he  that  is  born  king  of  the  Jews?  for  we 
have  seen  his  star  in  the  east,  and  are  come  to  worship 
him/' 

The  part  of  the  sentence  which  follows  the  interrogation,  has  no 
expressed  connection  with  the  question  propounded  by  the  wise 
men.  That  is,  "for  we  have  seen  his  star  in  the  east,  and  are  come  to 
worship  him,"  has  no  expressed  bearing  upon  the  part  which  it 
follows. 

The  omission  of  the  mono,  we  ask  the  question,  renders  the  exact 
sense,  and  the  precise  connection,  somewhat  obscure. 

Where  is  he  that  is  born  king  of  the  Jews  ?  We  ask, 
because  we  have  seen  his  star  in  the  east,  and  we  have  come 
to  worship  him. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LIX. 
John  taught  Joseph  more  than  James. 
As  the  intention  is  to  say  that  John  taught  Joseph  more  than 
James  taught  him,  this  mono  is  too  implenary  to  make  a  clear  ex- 
pression of  the  intended  idea. 

Rule ;  as,  John  taught  Joseph  more  than  James 

tauyJU  him. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [John  got  the  book]  (he  wanted.) 

2.  [And  no  man  could  bind  him,]  (no,  not)  (with  chains:)  (Be- 
cause (that)  he  had  often  been  bound)  (with  fetters,)  (nnd)  (chains,) 


352  SYNTAX 

(and  the  chains  had  been  plucked  asunder)  (by  him,)  (and  the 
fetters  broken.) 

[Was  the  mono,  we  know  this,  placed  before  the  word,  because, 
the  exact  connection  might  be  more  readily  apprehended.] 


Rule  LX. 

Every  mono,  and  every  sentence,  should  be 
left  implenart/,  when  the  implenary  state  produces 
neither  ambiguity,  nor  cacophony ;  as, 

[Give     ,     (    ,     me)  a  book.] 

[The  subject  of  these  Rules,  is  thoroughly  discussed  in  the 
Exegesis.] 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  LX. 
[Give  thou  (to  me)  a  book.] 
As  the  nonexpression  of  thou,  and  to  would  produce  neither  am- 
biguity nor  cacophony,  their  expression  is  a  violation  of  Rule 
LX. 
Rule ;  as,  Give  me  a  book. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [He  drank  water]  (on  last  evening.) 

2.  I  saw  the  bird  to  fly. 

3.  [Etymology  treats]  (of  the  derivation)  (of  words,)  (and)  (of 
their  classes,)  (and)  (modifications.) — C.  FarnunCs  English  Gram- 
mar. 

4.  [There  are  three  persons  ;]  (the  first,)  (the  second,)  (and  the 
third.) — 0.  FarnurrCs  English  Grammar. 

5.  [There  are  two  numbers;]  (the  singular,)  (and)  (the  plural.) 
— C.  Farnum's  Grammar. 

6.  [Etymology  treats]  (of  the  different  sorts)  (of  words,)  (their 
various  modifications,)  (and)  (their  derivations.) — P.  Bullions' s 
Grammar. 

7.  [But  they  understood  not  what  things]  (they  were)  (which 
he  said)  (unto  them.) 

Note  I.  appended  to  Rule  LX. 

When  the  same  sub-mono  will  gnomify  with  all  the  supers, 
it  should  be  understood  after  all  but  the  last )  as, 


SYNTAX.  353 

1.  [Henry  reads;]  (and  lie  could  write)  (&y  moonlight.) 
Not,  [Henry  reads]  {by  moonlight;)  (and  he  could  write)  (     , 
»         •) 

EXERCISES, 

Under  Note  I. 

1.  [William  is]  (a  better  boy)  (than  Thomas,)  (and  a  more  dili- 
gent pupil.) 

2.  [Susan  is  older]  (than  Phoebe,)  (but  not)  (so  good  a  pupil.) 

3.  'This  tree  is  higher]  (than  that;)  (and  larger.) 

4.  [This  dress  is  newer]  (than  that;)  (but  it  is  not  more  beau- 
tiful. 

Note  II.  amended  to  Rule  LX. 

When  the  sub-mono  requires  a  slight  change  to  make  it 
gnomefy  with  different  supers,  it  should  be  expressed  after 
the  first  super  only ;  as,  "  He  was  more  beloved  (tJian  Oin- 
thiof)  (but  not  so  much  admired")  ,  ,  ,  .)  [He 
was  not  as  much  admired]  (as  Ctnthio;)  (but  he  was  more 
beloved)  (       ,       ,      ,       .) 

EXERCISES, 

Under  Note  II. 

1.  [Foster  went  faster;]  (but  he  did  not  arrive  (at  the  city)  as 
soon)  (as  James.) 

2.  Nathaniel  is  taller;]  (but  he  is  not  so  heavy)  (as  William.) 

3.  [Mr.  Jones  is  not  so  wealthy ;]  (but  he  is  more  generous) 
(than  Mr.  Stephenson.) 

4.  [Sarah  is  more  beautiful;]  (but  she  is  not  so  amiable)  (as 
Mary.) 

5.  [Laurine  is  more  attentive]  (to  her  books;)  (but  she  does 
not  learn  so  fast)  (as  Marilla.) 


Rule  LXI. 

■ 

When  the  cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  is  un- 
derstood after  and,  or,  either,  neither,  and  as  well 
as,  the  sub-mono  should  have  the  same  tense 
which  its  super  has ;  as, 

30* 


354  SYNTAX. 


[I  hi 

books.) 


I  have  read  J  (and    ,     written  books.)    (Not,  and  wrote 


Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXI. 
[I  have  read,  (and  wrote)  many  books.] 
As  the  cordictive  pronoun  is  understood  in  the  sub-mono,  the 
use  of  the  passed  tense  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXI. 

Rule ;  as,  [I  have  read,  (and  written)  many  books.] 


EXERCISES. 


He  saw  me,]  (and  has  satisfied  me.) 
He  saw  me,]  (and  even  had  called  me.) 
I  purchased  a  house,]  (and  have  paid)  (for  it.) 
4.   [I  have  received,  (and  wrote)  five  letters.] 
He  promised,]  (and  has  fulfilled.) 
I  have  received  a  letter,)  (and  wrote  an  answer.) 
I  went]  (to  the  city,)  (and  have  tarried)  (a  week.) 


LESSON  X. 
Rule  LXII. 


When  the  sub-mono  given  by  a  conjunction, 
has  one  tense,  and  its  super,  another,  the  cor- 
dictive noun,  or  pronoun  of  the  sub  should  be 
expressed;  as, 

[Henry  then  was ;]  (and  he  now  is)  (in  the  city.) 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXII. 
[I  was  then;]  (and  now  am)  (in  good  health.) 
As  the  sub-mono  has  one  tense,  and  its  super  another,  the  non- 
expression  of  the  cordictive  pronoun  in  the  sub-mono,  is  a  violation 
of  Rule  LXII. 

Rule ;  as,  [I  was  then;]  (and /now  am)  (in  good 

health.) 


1-  E 

2-  [ 


EXERCISES. 

He  acquired  a  fortune;]  (and  is  spending  it  rapidly.) 
He  has  written  a  letter ;]  (and  is  now  folding  it.) 


SYNTAX.  355 

8.  [He  had  purchased  the  book ;]  (and  was  paying)  (for  it.) 

4.  [lie  then  had  money;]  (but  has  none  now.) 

5.  [He  was  once  wise  ;]  (therefore,  is  thought  to  be  so  now.) 


Rule  LXIII. 

When  the  noun  demimono  is  general  in  its 
application,  its  general  theme  is  understood  in 
an  implied  mono  beginning  with  for  ;  as, 

1.  To  see  the  sun  is  delightful. 

That  is,  for  a  person  to  see  the  sun  is  delightful. 

2.  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy. 

That  is,  for  a.  person  to  be  good  is  for  him  to  be  happy. 

3.  To  profess  regard,  and  to  act  differently ,  mark  a  base 
mind. 

That  is,  for  a  person  to  profess  regard,  and  for  him  to  act  differ- 
ently, mark  a  base  mind. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXIII. 

For  a  person  to  see  the  sun,  is  delightful. 

As  this  demimono  is  general,  the  expression  of  its  general  theme, 
is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXIII. 

Rule ;  as,  To  see  the  sun  is  delightful. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  For  him  to  be  virtuous,  is  for  him  to  be  happy. 

2.  It  is  an  honour  fom  person  to  be  the  author  of  that  book. 

3.  For  a  person  to  be  surety  for  a  stranger,  is  dangerous. 

4.  For  a  person  not  to  know  what  had  happened  before  he  was 
born,  is  for  him  to  be  always  a  child. 

6.  For  a  person  to  improve,  is  his  duty. 


Rule  LXIV. 

The  cordictive  noun,  or  pronoun  after  and,  or, 
either,  neither,  and  as  xeell  as,  should  be  expressed 


356  SYNTAX. 

when  the  sub-mono  has  a  uniformly  inceptive  verb, 
and  the  super,  none;  as, 

He  is  here;  and  he  icill  continue  here,  I  have  procured 
some  aid ;  and  I  can  get  more. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXIV. 

[He  is  here,]  (and  will  continue  here.) 
As  the  sub-mono  has  an  inceptive  verb,  and  the  super  none,  the 
nonexpression  of  the  cordictive  pronoun  in  the  sub-mono,  is  a  vio- 
lation of  Rule  LXIV. 

Rule ;  as,  [He  is  here;]  (and  he  will   continue 

here.) 


EXERCISES. 

I  have  procured  some  aid ;]  (and  can  get  more.) 

I  have  been]  (in  the  city  ;)  (and  will  be  again.) 

He  is]  (a  faithful  servant;)  (and  will  probably  remain  so.) 

They  are  now  poor,]  (but  will  soon  be  rich.) 

He  is]  (a  negligent  lad;)  (but  will  be  diligent.) 

Rule  LXV. 


Where  the  super-mono  has  one  inceptive  verb, 
and  the  sub-mono  another,  the  cordictive  noun,  or 
pronoun  after  and,  or,  either,  neither,  and  as  ivell 
as,  should  be  expressed ;  as, 

1  might,  and  I  would  return ;  I  can,  and  I  will  return ; 
Henry  should,  and  he  shall  return. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXV. 
[I  might,]  (and  would  return.) 
As  the  super-mono  has  one  inceptive  verb,  and  the  sub,  another, 
the  non-expression  of  the  cordictive  pronoun  in  the  sub,  is  a  viola- 
tion of  Rule  LXV. 

Rule ;  as,  [I  might;]  (and  /would  return.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [I  can,]  (and  will  assist  him.) 

2  [Editors  can,]  (and  should  be  useful  men.) 


STNTA 1  357 


3.  [He  can,]  (and  must  help  them.) 

4.  [James  should,]  (and  shall  go)  (to  school.) 
6.  [He  will  not  be  seen,]  (and  cannot  be  seen.) 


Rule  LXVI. 

If  bid,  dare,  make,  see,  behold,  hear,  feel,  let,  or 
need,  is  used  in  the  ne-demimono,  to  (except  where 
the  duo  power  of  the  verb  is  abridged  by  be) 
should  not  be  expressed  in  the  demimono  ;  as, 

I  saw  him      ,      walk ;  We  belield  the  birds      ,      fly. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  JIule  LXVI. 
[I  bade  him  to  go]  (to  church.) 
The  expression  of  to^  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXVI. 
Rulk ;  as,  [I  bade  him    ,     go]  (to  church.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [He  dare  not  to  go]  (by  himself.) 

2.  I  will  make  him  to  remain]  (with  me.) 

3.  [William  beheld  an  eagle  to  fly,]  (which  saw  him  to  raise  his 

4.  [I  heard  him  to  preach]  (    ,     yesterday.) 
6.  Did  you  see  his  whip  to  hit  us? 

6.  He  needs*  not  to  go. 

7.  ne  was  seen    ,     write.  v 


8.  [I  was  seen    ,     speak]  (with  him.) 

9.  I  was  bid      ,    make  haste. 


Rule  LXVLT. 

When  a,  or  the  precedes  the  tenseless  Be  form, 
of  should  be  expressed  after  this  form ;  as, 

His  station  in  life  is  well  adapted  to  the  acquinw^  of 
knowledge ;  The  not  mokijig  of  a  will  is  a  culpable  omis- 
sion. 

. , , ., 

*  When  need  is  in  a  twonouncd  ne-demimono,  to  should  be  expressed  in  the 
demimono;  as,  They  need  us  to  aid  them. 


358  SYNTAX. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy,  Rule  LXVII. 

[The  making  (a  will)  was  his  duty.] 

The  non-expression  of  of,  after  making,  is  a  violation  of  Rule 
LXVII. 
Rule  -* ;  as,  [The  making  (of  a  will)  was]  (his  duty.) 


EXERCISES. 

1.  (By  the  exercising)  (our  judgments)  [we  improve.] 

2.  (By  the  observing)  (truth)  [we  gain  friends.] 


3.  (The  copying  (letters)  is]  (his  business.) 

4.  (By  the  taking)  (pains)  [you  will  learn.] 

5.  [The  learning  (languages)  is  very  laborious.] 


LESSON  XI. 


THE   NUMBER   OP  WORDS   AND    MONOS   WHICH   SHOULD  BE 
USED. 

Rule  LXYIII. 

When  my,  his,  her,  or  any  other  adjective  of 
a  similar  import,  precedes  the  tenseless  Be  form, 
of  may  either  be  expressed,  or  understood;  as, 

John's  buying  goods  caused  him  much  trouble,  or  John's 
buying  of  goods  caused  him  much  trouble. 

While  the  LXVIII.  Rule  is  one  which  cannot  be  violated,  the  next 
four  are  violated  in  almost  every  sentence.  Hence,  the  learner 
cannot  give  too  much  attention  to  them. 


Rule  LXIX. 

When  there  is  a  more  comprehensive  word 
which  will  express  the  idea  with  greater  brevity, 
and  with  equal  force,  perspicuity,  and  euphony, 
it  should  be  used. 


SYNTAX.  359 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  RULE  LXIX. 

(Of  what  consequence)  [is  it]  (to  me,)  (or)  (to  my  friends,) 
(whether  I  speak  according)  (to  its  rules,)  (or  not,)  (if  I  can  make 
myself  understood?) — J.  Frost. 

As  the  word,  grammatically,  is  as  comprehensive,  as  the  sylla- 
bane,  according  to  its  rules,  and  as  it  expresses  the  idea,  denoted 
by  this  syllabane,  with  as  much  force,  perspicuity,  and  euphony,  the 
use  of  this  syllabane  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXIX. 


Rule ;  as,  (Of  what  consequence)  [is  it]  (to  me,) 

Tor)  (to  my  friends,)  (whether  I  speak  grammatically,)  (or  not,) 
(if  I  can  make  myself  understood  ?) 


EXERCISES. 

1.  [Grammar  is]  (the  art)  (of  speaking)  (and)  (writing)  (the 
English  language)  (with  propriety.) — Murray,  CardeU,  Kirkham, 
Ingersol,  French,  Lennie,  Farnum,  Bullions,  &c,  &c. 

2.  [Grammar  is]  (the  science)  (of  language,)  (and)  (the  art)  (of 
speaking)  (and)  (writing)  (with  accuracy.) — E.  Hazens  Grammar. 

3.  [English  Grammar  is]  (the  art)  (of  speaking)  (and)  (writing) 
(the  English  language  correctly.) — Goold  Brown. 

4.  [English  Grammar  teaches  us  to  speak,  (and  write)  (the  Eng- 
lish language  correctly.) — R.  C.  Smith. 

5.  [English  Grammar  consists]  (of  directions^  (for  speaking) 
(and)  (writing)  (the  English  language  correctly.) — 0.  B.  Pierce's 
Grammar. 

6.  (Which  form  a  sure  guide)  (in  speaking,)  (and)  (writing)  (the 
English  language.) 

7.  [English  Grammar  is]  (a  science,)  (by  which)  (we  learn  to 
speak)  (and)  (write  the  English  language.) — B.  F.  Ellis's  Gram. 


Rule  LXX. 

When  under  a  different  form,  or  construction, 
fewer  words  would  express  the  ideas  with  equal 
force,  perspicuity,  and  euphony,  it  should  be 
used. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXX. 

[The  person  (of  whom)  (we  have  already  spoken,)  might  pur- 
sue his  inquiries  (a  little)  farther,]  (and  say,)  ("Whence  does 
Grammar  receive  its  authority  V')— Preface  to  J.  Frost's  English 
Grammar. 


360  SYNTAX. 

As  under  a  different  form,  fewer  words  would  express  the  ideas, 
the  construction,  [The  person  (of  whom)  (we  have  already  spoken,) 
might  pursue  his  inquiries  (a  little)  farther,]  (and  say,)  is  a  viola- 
tion of  Rule  LXX. 

Rule ;  as,  This  person  might  here  ask,  "Whence 

does  Grammar  receive  its  authority?"  Or,  This  person  might 
further  inquire,  "  Whence  does  Grammar  receive  its  authority  ?" 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [The  person]  (who  used  the  expression)  (might  turn  (upon 
us)  again,)  (and  inquire,)  ("Why  should  I  learn  English  Gram- 
mar V -^Preface  to  J.  Frost's  Grammar. 

2.  [Great  attention  must  be  paid]  (to  the  vowels)  (which  are 
not  accented.) — J.  Comly's  Grammar. 

3.  (And  to  furnish  a  test)  (whether  he  is  sufficiently  prepared) 
(for  recitation.) — Bullions' s  Grammar. 


Rule  LXXI. 

Words  and  monos,  which,  if  employed,  would 
express  nothing  but  what  is  obvious  from  the 
nature  of  the  subject,  should  not  be  used  unless 
their  omission  would  produce  an  intolerable  caco- 
phony by  depriving  a  sub  of  a  super. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXXI. 

[Very  young  pupils,  (or  mere  beginners)  (at  any  age,)  should 
be  required  to  study  only  the  leading  parts,]  (which  are  gene- 
rally distinguished)  (in  the  grammar)  (by  larger  type.) — Bullions's 
Grammar. 

As  the  mono,  in  the  grammar,  expresses  nothing  but  what  is  obvi- 
ous, and  as  its  omission  would  not  deprive  any  sub  of  a  super,  its 
use  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXI. 

Rule ;  as,  Which  are  generally  distinguished  by 

larger  type. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [It  is  absolutely  necessary]  (to  use  grammatical  language) 
(in  order)  (to  convey  his  meaning  clearly)  (to  the  mind)  (of- the 
hearer)  (or)  (reader.) — John  Frost's  English  Grammar. 

2.  [Orthography  teaches  the  nature]  (and  power)  (of  letters,) 
(and  the  correct  method)  (of  spelling  words.)—  Bullions' s  Gram. 


SYNTAX.  361 

3.  [A  noun  is]  (the  name)  (of  any  person,)  (place,)  (or  thing.) 
— Kirkham's  Oram. 

4.  [A  noun  is]  (the  name}  (of  any  thing)  (that  we  can  see,} 
(hear,)  (taste,)  (smell,)  (feel,)  (or)  (discourse)  (of;)  (as,)  (man,) 
(apple.) — J.  Comly's  Oram. 

5.  [A  substantive  (or  noun)  is]  (the  name)  (of  any  thing)  (that 
exists)  (or)  (of  which)  (we  have  any  notion.) — L.  Murray's  Gram. 


Rule  LXXII. 

Words,  and  monos,  which,  if  employed, 
would  express  nothing  but  irrelevant,  or  unim- 
portant matter,  should  be  omitted. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXXII. 

"Dear  Sir — I  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  a  copy  of  your  Eng- 
lish Grammar,  {left)  (upon  my  office  desk)  (yesterday)  (afternoon") 

As  the  last  four  monos  express  nothing  but  unimportant  matter, 
their  use  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXII. 

Rule ;  as,  Dear  Sir — I  acknowledge  the  receipt 

of  a  copy  of  your  English  Grammar. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  (If  a  piece  (of  writing,}  (for  example,  a  contract,  or  a  man's 
will,)  were  executed)  in  such,  a  manner,  &c. — J.  Frost. 

2.  When  the  number  and  variety  of  English  Grammars  already 
published,  and  the  ability  with  which  some  of  them  are  written, 
are  considered,  little  can  be  expected  from  a  new  compilation, 
besides  a  careful  selection  of  the  most  useful  matter,  and  some 
degree  of  improvement  in  the  mode  of  adapting  it  to  the  under- 
standing, and  gradual  progress  of  the  learner. — L.  Murray. 


Rule  LXXIII. 

The  construction  of  the  sentence,  should  make 
a  theme  cordktive,  or  uncordictive,  as  the  turn  of 
thought  requires ;  as, 

1.  The  names,  nature,  division,  and  the  sounds  of  tho 
letters  are  here  considered. 

31 


<ib 


362  SYNTAX. 

2.  [The  wages  (of  sin,)  are]  (death.) 

3.  The  colour  of  the  negro  is  here  considered. 

The  following  constructions  are  bad : — 

1.  Letters  are  considered  in  regard  to  their  nature,  divi- 
sions, and  sounds,  and  mode  of  forming  them  into  words  and 
syllables. — Harts  Grammar. 

2. 

3.  The  negro  is  here  considered  in  regard  to  his  colour. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  LXXILT. 

As  the  turn  of  thought  renders  the  nature,  divisions,  and  the 
sounds  of  letters  cordictive,  and  the  letters  themselves  uncordictive, 
the  construction  of  the  sentence  should  make  the  nature,  divisions, 
and  the  sounds  the  cordictive  themes,  and  the  letters  uncordic- 
tive. 

Rule ;  as,  The  nature,  divisions,  and  the  sounds  of 

letters,  are  here  considered. 

I  am  aware  that  the  old  school  grammarians  take  the  position 
that  death  is  the  natural  cordictive  theme.  But  I  feel  satisfied  that 
they  are  wrong.  That  the  wages  are  the  central  point  of  thought 
is  obvious  from  the  consideration  that  the  writer  attempts  to  say 
what  the  wages  of  sin  are. 

The  wages  of  sin  are  death. 

Does  the  writer  here  undertake  to  describe  death  ?  No — he  at- 
tempts to  describe  the  wages  of  sin. 

The  colour  of  the  apple  is  red. 

Here  the  writer  attempts  to  describe  the  colour:  hence,  this 
attribute  is  rendered  the  cordictive  theme  by  the  turn  of  the  thought. 
Did  the  writer  of  this  proposition  wish  to  describe  the  apple,  the 
apple  would  be  the  cordictive  theme ;  and  the  sentence  should  be 
construed  thus : — 

The  apple  is  red. 

But  as  the  writer  wishes  to  describe  the  colour  of  the  apple,  the 
diction,  the  speech,  the  sentence,  springs  out  of  the  colour  :  hence, 
the  colour  is  the  life  source  of  the  speech,  and,  to  express  this  idea, 
the  colour  is  called  the  cordictive  theme. 

By  what  means  does  the  writer  describe  the  colour  ?  By  predi- 
cating redness  of  it.  The  redness  which  the  writer  ascribes  to 
the  colour  through  the  agency  of  is,  is  the  ear  mark  that  distin- 
guishes the  colour  which  the  writer  wishes  to  describe. 

How  does  the  sacred  writer  describe  the  wages  ?  By  ascribing 
death  to  them:  hence,  death  is  the  characteristic  mark  of  the 
wages  of  sin. 


SYNTAX.  363 

Is  it  not«lear,  then,  that  the  wages  moved  the  writer  to  fori* 
the  diction,  the  sentence,  in  which  he  predicates  death  of  these 
wages?  If  so,  are  not  the  wages  the  heart  of  this  diction?  As 
life  proceeds  from  the  heart,  does  not  the  following  sentence  pro* 
ceed  from  the  wages  ? — 

The  wages  of  sin  are  death, 


Rule  LXXIV. 

The  construction  of  the  sentence  should  make 
a  thing  the  uncordictive  theme  of  a  verb,  or  of 
a  preposition,  as  the  turn  of  thought  requires ; 
as, 

1.  I  shall  here  consider  the  nature,  the  divisions,  and  the 
sounds  of  letters, 

2.  We  form  syllables^  and  words  from  letters. 

1.  [Not,  I  shall  here  consider  letters  in  regard  to  their 
nature,  divisions,  and  sounds.'} 

2.  [Not,  We  form  letters  into  syllafdes,  and  words.] 

[It  is  obvious  that  the  consideration  is  to  fall,  not  upon  the  let- 
ters, but  upon  the  nature,  divisions,  and  the  sounds  of  letters.  Hence, 
the  sentence  should  be  constructed  in  a  way  which  corresponds  to 
this  particular  turn  x>f  thought. 

It  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  turn  of  the  thought  in  the  second 
sentence,  that  the  formation  falls,  not  upon  the  letters,  but  upon 
the  syllables,  and  the  words.  Hence,  .the  construction  which  would 
disregard  this  particular  turn  of  the  thought  of  the  proposition, 
would  be  unnatural.^   - 

The  following  sentences  violate  Rule  LXXIV. : — 

The  forming  of  letters  into  words  and  syllables  is  also 
called  spelling. — Hart's  Grammar. 

The  syllable*  and  words  are  formed  out  of  letters : — henee,  the 
natural  construction  is — 

The  forming  of  syllaUes  and  words  from  letters,  is  also 
called  spelling. 

Rule  LXXV. 

When  the  elements  are  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  thing  which  they  constitute,  the 


364  SYNTAX. 

elements  should  be   named  before  the  thing 
which  they  form ;  as, 

1.  The  formation  of  syllables,  and  words  from  letters  is 
spelling. 

The  following  sentences  are  bad: — 

1.  The  forming  of  letters  into  words,  and  syllables  is  also 
called  spelling. — Hart's  Grammar. 

2.  Letters  are  considered  in  regard  to  their  nature,  divi- 
sions, and  sounds,  and  the  mode  of  forming  them  into  words 
and  syllables, — Hurt's  Grammar. 

Kule  LXXVI. 

The  implication  of  a  sub  mono  whose  theme 
has  no  affinity  with  the  theme  of  its  super  mono, 
should  be  avoided ;  as, 

Letters  are  considered  in  regard  to  their  nature,  divisions, 
and  sounds,  and  the  mode  of  forming  them  into  words  and 
syllables. — Hart's  Grammar. 

The  sub  mono,  of  forming,  is  understood  after  the  supers,  to  their 
nature,  to  their  divisions,  and  to  their  sounds.  To  render  this  clear, 
I  will  give  the  sentence  another  construction : — 

We  will  here  consider  the  nature,  the  divisions,  the  sounds, 
and  the  formation  of  letters  into  words. 

As  the  introduction  of  the  mono,  into  words,  indicates  that  into 
.  words  is  understood  after  nature,  divisions,  and  sounds,  so  the  use 
of  the  mono,  of  forming,  indicates  that  of  forming  is  understood 
after  nature,  divisions,  and  sounds. 

Implenary. 

We  will  here  consider  the  nature,  (  ,  ,  ) 

(,,)(,,,,,         the  divi- 
sions) (         ,         ,         )  (         ,         ,         )  (         ,         , 
,         ,         ,         the  sounds,)  (         ,         ,         )  (     , 
,         )(         ,         ,         ,         ,         ,         the  formation) 
(of  letters)  (into  words.) 

Plenary. 
[We  will   here  consider  the  nature]  (of  letters)  (into 


SYNTAX.  305 

words,)  (and  we  will  here  consider  the  division)  (of  letters) 
{into  words,)  (and  we  will  here  consider  the  sounds)  (of  let- 
ters) (into  words,)  (and  we  will  here  consider  the  formation) 
(of  letters)  (into  words.)* 


ILLUSTRATION. 

We  will  here  form  the  wood,  the  iron,  the  brass,  and  the 
copper,  into  cliairs. 

In  this  construction,  which  is  similar  to  the  other,  "  into  chairs" 
is  understood  after  wood,  iron,  brass,  and  copper.  If,  in  this  con- 
struction, **  into  chairs"  is  implied  after  wood,  iron,  brass,  and  cop- 
per, in  the  second,  is  not  "  into  words"  implied  after  nature,  division, 
and  sounds?  And,  if  in  the  second,  ilinto  words"  is  implied  after 
nature,  divisions,  and  sounds,  in  the  first,  is  not il  of  forming"  under- 
stood after  nature,  divisions,  and  sounds  ? 

From  what  is  the  implication  of  into  chairs  derived  ?  From  the 
actual  expression  of  this  mono  as  the  sub  of  the  cordietive  super 
given  by  and.  The  law  is  this ;  The  expressed  prepositional  sub  of 
the  super  given  by  and,  or,  or  nor,  is  implied  after  each  mono 
which  is  similar  to  the  conjunctional  super  given  by  and,  or,  or  nor. 
To  this  principle  there  is  one  exception  only,  which  occurs  where 
the  prepositional  sub,  or  one  like  it,  is  actually  expressed  after  each 
mono  which  is  similar  to  the  conjunctional  super  given  by  and,  or, 
or  nor ;  as, 

L  We  will  here  make  the  wood  into  chairs,  the  iron  into 
chairs,  the  brass  info  chafrs,  and  the  copper  into  chairs. 

2.  Henry  has  lived  in  Boston,  in  Philadelphia,  and  in 
Baltimore. 

That  is,  Henry  has  lived  in  Boston,  and  he  has  lived  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  he  has  lived  in  Baltimore. 

Letters  are  considered  in  regard  to  their  nature,  divisions, 
and  sounds,  and  the  mode  of  forming  them  into  words  and 
syllables. 

But  it  may  be  said  that  the  law  of  which  I  have  spoken,  does 
not  apply  to  this  case;  for  ** of  forming"  is  the  sub  of  the  super 
given-  by  and.  The  mono,  given  by  and,  is  the  super  of  the  prepo- 
sitional sub,  of  the  mode. 

True,  the  principle  which  I  have  already  explained  as  a  law, 
does  not  apply  to  this  particular  case.  But,  as  this  principle  is 
very  similar  to  the  one  which  does  apply  to  it,  and,  as  it  is  some- 
what more  easily  explained  than  that  which  does  apply,  I  have 
given  it  as  a  key  to  the  law  which  governs  this  case. 

31* 


366  SYNTAX. 

Principle. 

When  the  prepositional  clad  which  is  sub  to  the  conjunc- 
tional mono  given  by  and,  or,  or  nor,  has  a  prepositional 
sub,  this  sub  is  understood  after  each  mono  that  corresponds 
to  its  prepositional  super;  as, 

1.  Letters  are  considered  in  regard  (to  their  nature,  divi- 
sions, and  sounds,  and  the  mode  of  forming  them  into  words 
and  syllables.) 

The  mono,  to  the  mode,  is  the  prepositional  clad  which  is  sub  to 
the  conjunctional  super  given  by  and.  This  clad  has  a  prepositional 
sub,  viz.,  of  forming. 

And,  as  the  prepositional  sub,  of  forming,  is  understood  after  each 
mono  which  corresponds  to  the  prepositional  clad  that  is  sub  to 
the  conjunctional  super  given  by  and,  it  is  implied  after  the  monos, 
to  their  nature,  to  their  divisions,  and  to  their  sounds. 

1.  [Letters  are  considered]  (in  regard)  (to  their  nature) 
(of forming.) 

2.  (and  they  are  considered)  (in  regard)  (to  their  divi- 
sions) (of forming.) 

3.  (and  they  are  considered)  (in  regard)  (to  their  sounds) 
(of  forming.) 

4.  (and  they  are  considered)  (in  regard)  (to  the  mode) 
(of forming.) 

That  the  monos,  to  their  nature,  to  their  divisions,  and  to  their 
sounds,  correspond  to  the  clad,  to  the  mode,  may  be  seen  from  the 
following : — 

1.  (in  regard)  (to  their  nature)  (         ,         ,         .) 

2.  (in  regard)  (to  their  divisions)  (       ' ,         ,         .) 

3.  (in  regard)  (to  their  sounds)  (         ,         ,         .) 

4.  (in  regard)  (to  the  mode)  (of  forming.) 

Letters  are  considered  in  regard  to  their  nature,  divisions, 
and  sounds,  and  the  mode  of  forming  them  into  words  and 
syllables. — Mart's  Grammar. 

Rule  LXXJV,  requires  the  first  part  of  this  sentence  to  read 
thus:— 

The  nature,  divisions,  and  the  sounds  of  letters  are  con- 
sidered. 

Rule  LVII,,  page  349,  requires  the  first  part  of  this  sentence  to 
read  thus : — 

I  shall  here  consider  the  nature,  divisions,  and  the  sounds 
of  letters. 


SYNTAX.  3G7 

Rule  LXXV.  requires  the  transposition  of  words  and  syllables. 

Letters  are  considered  in  regard  to  their  nature,  divisions, 
and  sounds,  and  the  mode  of  forming  them  into  words,  and. 
syllabi*  s. 

[Into  syllables,  and  words.'] 

Rule  LXXVI.  requires  the  rejection  of  the  part  of  the  sentence 
which  follows  sounds.  The  sentence,  then,  in  its  revised  state, 
reads  thus : — 

I  shall  here  consider  the  nature,  the  divisions,  and  the 
sounds  of  letters. 

Should  one  ask,  what  can  be  done  with  the  rejected  parts  of  this 
sentence,  my  reply  would  be,  that  as  they  contain  materials 
enough  for  a  separate  building,  they  should  be  erected,  in  the 
proper  place,  into  a  distinct  sentence. 


LESSON  XIL 
Kule  LXXVIL 


Every  mono  should  contain  supers  for  its  own 
subs;  as, 

1.  [He  said,"]  (where  art  thou?) 

The  word,  said,  is  a  sub  word ;  and,  as  it  is  of  the  plusidios,  it 
must  have  two  supers.  He  is  one  super,  and  the  noun  syllabane, 
"  Where  art  thou?"  is  the  other. — (Book  I.  page  143.) 

2.  [Hunter  heard]  (that)  (/am  sick.) 

Not,  Hunter  heard  (of  my  being  sick. ) 

Common  as  is  this  form  of  expression,  the  subs,  of,  my,  being, 
and  sick,  have  no  super. 

To  what  super  does  of  refer?  To  what  super  does  my  refer? 
To  what  super  does  being  refer?  And  what  is  the  super  of  sick? 
My  is  the  super  of  these  four  subs.     And  who,  pray,  is  my  ? 

3.  It  was  not  mentioned  that  (he  was  sick.) 

Not,  His  being  sick  was  not  mentioned. 

This  form  of  expression  leaves  his,  being,  and  sick  without  a 
super.  But  the  following  form  provides  a  super  for  these  three 
subs : — 

That  he  was  sick  was  not  mentioned.     Or; 


368  SYNTAX. 

It  was  not  mentioned  that  lie  teas  side. 

4.'  His  expertnessm  grammar  procured  him  the  situation. 

Not,  His  being  expert  in  grammar,  procured  him  the  situation. 
Should  we  here  ask,  who  was  expert  ?  the  answer  must  be  his  I 
Well,  who  is  his  t 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXXVII. 

1.  His  being  sick. 

i     These  three  subs  are  left  without  a  super  to  sustain  them. 
That  he  was  sick,  was  not  mentioned.     Or, 
It  was  not  mentioned  that  he  was  siek. 

2.  My  being  sick. 
Hunter  heard  that  /  am  sick. 

3.  His  being  expert. 
His  expertness  in  grammar,  procured  him  this  situation. 

1.  His  being  wise,  was  doubted. 
The  want  of  a  super  for  his,  being,  and  wise,  is  a  violation  of 
Rule  LXXVII. 
Rule ;  as,  It  was  doubted  whether  he  was  wise. 

2.  [I  came]  (from  there.) 
The  want  of  a  super  for  from  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXVII. 
Rule ;  as,  I  came  from  that  place. 


EXERCISES. 


"Read]  (from  here)  (to  there.) 
'How  far  is  it]  (from  here)  (to  Dayton  ?) 
"I  will  go]  (from  here)  (to  Germantown.) 
1  exerted  myself]  (to  prevent  his  becoming  a  bad  boy.) 
If  a  piece  (of  writing)  were  executed]  (in  such  a  manner)  (as 
to  admit)  (of  two  interpretations.) — J.  Frost. 

6.  (With  all  its  excellence,)  [however,  it  is  far  (from  being)  in- 
capable] (of  improvement.) — Bullions. 


Rule  LXXVIII. 

Where  the  idea  is  that  of  a  consequence,  the 
pronoun,  that,  explained  by  ne-demi  monos, 
should  be  used  ;  as, 


SYNTAX. 

Henry  studied  grammar  so  closely,  (that)  (he  went) 
(through  the  three  Books)  (in  four  weeks.) 

[Not,  Henry  studied  grammar  so  closely,  as  to  go  through 
the  three  Books  in  four  weeks.] 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXXVIII. 

A  Grammar  ought  to  be  simple  in  its  style,  and  arrangement, 
so  as  to  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  youth. — Bullions. 

As  the  idea  is  that  of  a  result,  the  use  of  as,  and  the  demimono, 
to  be,  and  not  of  the  pronoun*  that,  followed  by  the  ne-demimono, 
it  may  be  adapted,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXVIII. 

Rule ;  as,  A  Grammar  ought  to  be  simple  in  its 

style,  that  it  may  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  youth. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  The  design  of  this  book  is  to  benefit  those  whose  time  is  so 
devoted,  as  to  preclude  the  possibility,  &c. 

2.  Apprentices  whose  time  is  so  circumscribed  by  contract,  as 
to  prevent  their  attending  to  this  study  in  the  ordinary  way. 

3.  The  author  of  this  compilation  has  studied  so  to  abridge  the 
definitions  and  rules  necessary  to  be  committed  to  memory,  as  not 
to  burden  the  pupil. 

4.  The  master  is  expected  to  be  so  fully  imbued  with  his  sub- 
ject, and  so  expert  in  his  art  as  to  be  able  to  impart  knowledge. 


Rule  LXXIX. 
Other. 

Other  should  be  used  only  where  the  writer 
wishes  to  indicate  that  the  things  mentioned  in 
the  super  mono,  belong  to  the  same  class  with 
those  named  in  the  sub ;  as, 

1.  [Jacob  loved  Joseph  more]  (than  all  his  other  children.) 

2.  [Get  apples]  (and  other  fruit.) 

The  omission  of  other  will  illustrate  the  Rule. 

[Jacob  loved  Joseph  more]  (than  he  loved  all  his  children.) 

[Get  apples]  (and  fruit.) 

In  the  first,  it  is  indicated  by  the  omission  of  other,  that  Joseph 
was  not  a  child  of  Jacob. 


370  SYNTAX. 

In  the  second,  it  is  indicated  by  the  omission  of  other,  that  apples 
are  not  fruit. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXXIX. 

[Jacob  loved  Joseph  more]  (than  all  his  children.) 

As  by  the  omission  of  other,  it  is  indicated  that  Joseph  does  not 

belong  to  the  class  composed  of  the  children  of  Jacob,  and  as  the 

writer  wishes  to  prevent  this  indication,  the  want  of  other,  is  a 

violation  of  Rule  LXXIX. 

Rule — ;  as,  Jacob  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his 

other  children. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
6. 
6. 
ment 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 


EXERCISES. 

The  Bible  is  better]  (than  all  books.) 
Methuselah  was  older]  (than  any  man.) 
"Samson  was  stronger]  (than  any  man.) 
"Solomon  was  wiser]  (than  any  man.) 
The  Chinese  Empire  is  older]  (than  any  empire.) 
The  Russian  Empire  is  more  extensive]  (than  any  govern- 

" Washington  was]  (a  better  commander)  (than  any  general.) 
The  Mississippi  river  is  longer]  (than  any  river.) 
"Hope  is  more  constant]  (than  any  passion.) 
[The  English  language  has  a  greater  variety]  (of  expres- 


sion) (than  any  language.) 

REMARK. 

First,  Last. 

Where  first,  or  last  is  used  to  designate  a  lesser  group  by 
expressing  its  numeral  place,  or  order  in  relation  to  the 
other  lesser  groups  into  which  a  grand  group  is  subdivided, 
it  is  a  subadjective,  employed,  not  to  express  comparison, 
but  order,  and  it  should  precede  the  principal  adjective 
which  expresses  how  many  individuals  this  particular  group 
comprises;  as, 

Read  the  first  six  verses  of  the  chapter. 
Sing  the  last  seven  verses  of  the  hymn.     (See  Note, 
p.  324.) 


SYNTAX.  371 

LESSON  xm. 

THE  REPETITION   OP  PARTICULAR  WORDS   IS   REQUIRED. 

Rule  LXXX. 

Every  word  whose  repetition  would  augment 
the  force  of  the  sentence,  may  be  repeated ;  as,* 

Every  day,  and  every  hour  brings  something  interesting  to 
each  officer,  to  each  soldier,  and  to  each  citizen ;  I  looked — 
but  I  saw  no  man,  no  woman,  no  child  within  call. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  by  Rule  LXXX. 
[God  always  has  governed  the  world;]  (and  He  will  govern  it.) 
As  the  repetition  of  always  would  give  additional  force  to  the 
sentence,  its  non-repetition  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXX. 

Rule ;  as,  [God  always  has  governed  the  world  ;] 

(and  He  always  will  govern  it.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  He  was  neither  a  philosopher,  saint,  nor  hero. 

2.  The  deeper  the  prejudice  more  fame  to  the  courage  which 
braves  it. 

3.  The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  powerful ;  it  is  full  of  majesty ;  it 
breaketh  the  cedars. — Ptal.  xxix.  4,  6.    , 

4.  Whom  they  loved,  served,  ran  after,  sought,  and  worshipped. 
— Jer.  viii.  2. 

5.  Where  is  the  wise,  the  scribe, — and  the  disputer  of  this 
world  ?— 1  Cor.  i.  20. 

Rule  LXXXI. 

When  the  non-repetition  of  any  adjective, 
would  reduce  intended  plurality  to  unity,  the 
adjective  should  be  repeated ;  as, 

*  The  words  which  are  generally  repeated  to  Increase  the  force  of  a  sentence, 
are  each,  every,  no,  any,  both,  the,  a,  apoalrophic,  and  pronoun  adjectives,  and  prepo- 
sitions. 

Nouns,  and  rerbs  are  sometimes  repeated  to  gi ye  additional  force. 


372  SYNTAX. 

Henry  saw  the  black,  and  the  white  ox;  Joseph  purchased 
a  black,  and  a  white  horse ;  Nathaniel  called  John's  black, 
and  his  white  dog. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  LXXXI. 
[He  read  the  Old        ,        ,]  (and  New  Testament.) 
As  the  non-repetition  of  the,  reduces  intended  plurality  to  unity, 
the  non-repetition  of  the  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXXI. 

Rule ; ;  as,  [He  read  the  Old    ,     ,]  (and  the  New 

Testament.) 

EXERCISES. 

1 .  He  purchased  the  black,  and  white  ox,  and  lost  them. 

2.  I  have  the  small,  and  large  apple. 

8.  He  has  the  crooked,  and  straight  stick. 

4.  I  saw  a  white,  and  coloured  man. 

5.  He  has  a  sour,  and  sweet  orange. 


Rule  LXXXII. 

When  the  repetition  of  any  adjective  would 
augment  intended  unity  to  plurality,  the  adjec- 
tive should  not  be  repeated  ;  as, 

Henry  saw  the  black,  and  white  ox;  Joseph  purchased 
a  black,  and  white  horse. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  LXXXII. 

[They  saw  the  black,  (and  the  white  ox)  when]  (I  fed  him.) 
As  the  repetition  of  the  augments  intended  unity  to  plurality,  it 

is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXXII. 

Rule  — : ;  as,  [They  saw  the  black,  (and  white  ox) 

when]  (I  fed  him.) 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Get  the  red,  and  the  white  cloth  which  lies  near  you. 

2.  Have  you  the  large,  and  the  sweet  apple  ?  The  one  which  I 
gave  you. 

3.  I  examined  the  long,  and  the  narrow  street  which  runs  from 
Market  to  South. 


SYNTAX.  373 

hule  lxxxih. 

Where  the  plus  numerdiction  of  the  expressed 
noun,  makes  too  many  of  the  same  kind,  the  ex- 
pressed noun  should  remain  uni,  and  the  first 
set  of  adjectives  be  limited  to  the  noeton  noun 
by  the  repetition  of  the,  or  by  a  repetition  of 
the  preposition  in  its  noeton  character  \  as, 

1.  Henry  teaches  the  Greek,  and  the  Latin  language. 
(Not,  languages.) 

2.  He  found  this  doctrine  in  the  Old,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    (Not,  Testaments.) 

3.  The  first,  and  the  second  edition  is  sold.  (Not,  edi- 
tions.) 

4.  He  went  to  Arch  ,  and  ,  Market  street.  (Not, 
streets.) 

5.  Luther  resides  at  the  corner  of  Arch,  and  ,  Fourth 
street. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  LXXXLTI. 
[He  teaches  the  Greek    ,     ]  (and  Latin  languages.) 
As  the  plus  numerdiction  of  the  expressed  noun  makes  too  many 
of  the  same  kind,  the  non-limitation  of  the  first  set  of  adjectives 
to  the  noeton  noun,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXXIII. 

Rule ;  as,  [He  teaches  the  Greek,]  (and  the  Latin 

language.)  - 

EXERCISES. 

1.  [We  will  sing  the  fourth,]  (and  fifth  Verses. ) 

2.  [James  lives]  (at  the  corner)  (of  Second,)  (and  Callowhill 
streets.)  -    . 

3.  [The  second,  (and  third  books)  are  his     ,     .] 

4.  [The  fourth,  (and  fifth  men)  were  lost.] 

6.  [His  first,  (and  second  brothers)  are  well.} 

Rule  LXXXIV. 

Every  word  which  is  employed,  should  be 
used  in  a  legitimate  form ;  as, 

32 


374  SYNTAX. 

1.  This  man  is  going  to  Philadelphia.     (Not,  is  goin.) 

2.  He  pleaded  his  own  cause.     (Not,  pled.) 

3.  This  medicine  is  a  preventive  against  a  fever.  .  (Not 
preventative.) 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  LXXXI V. 
I'd  as  lief. 

The  use  of  would,  and  lief  in  illigitimate  forms,  is  a  violation  of 
Rule  LXXXIV. 
Rule ;  as,  I  would  as  soon. 


EXERCISES. 


Henry  sot]  (in  that  chair)  (last  evening.) 
He  is  coming  (to  Philadelphia)  soon.] 
He  conducted]  (in  a  gentlemany  manner.) 

4.  The  boiler  bursted. 

5.  He  plead  his  own  cause. 

6.  [Several  were]  (of  that  opinion.) 

7.  He  has  been  misfortunate. 

8.  [I  wish  to  get  shet]  (of  the  troublesome  person.) 

9.  [He  is]  (at  hum.) 
10.  You  haddent  any  book. 


11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 


Tant  any  better]  (than  hern.) 
zzent  this  line  well  written  ? 
Tizzent  any  better]  (than  hizzen.) 
He  will  come,]  (and  bring  yourn,)  (and  theirn.) 
He  will  go  afore]  (I  go.) 
He  lives  furder]  (from  the  city)  (than  I.) 
"Has  John  come  ?]     [Yes,  I  seed  him,]  (and  he  knowd  me.) 
=I  wish]  (I  haddent  done  it) — (howsomever  I  dont  keer.) 
He  says]  (I  ort  to  go  ;)  (but  I  wont  do  it.) 
[No,  " 


"Do  you  want  all  ?]     [No,  I  want  part  unly.] 
'My  house  is  sitewated]  (on  a  nate-eral  mound  of  consider- 
able hithe.) 

22.  [You  needent  look  so  cross ;]  (you  cant  skeer  me.) 

23.  [That  is]  (a  good  pen.)     [I  dont  keer]  (if  it  is.) 

24.  Whar  air  you  goin  tu  ? 

25.  [I  throwd  a  stun]  (at  the  bird.) 

26.  [This  medicine  is]  (a  preventative)  (against  a  fever.) 

27.  Have  you  the  books  ?     Certainny  I  have. 

28.  Do  you  go  to  school  now  ?     No,  mum. 

29.  Are  you  acquainted  with  Sarah  ?     Nome ! 

30.  Are  you  comin,  Stephen  ? 

31.  I  can  throw  the  furtherest? 


SYNTAX.  375 

32.  I  disremember  the  circumstances. 

33.  He  is  a  good  musicianer. 

34.  He  catch'd  a  bird. 

35.  [I'd  rather  go]  (thand  stay.) 
86.  You  laugh  cause  I  hurt  myself. 

All  obsolete  modifications  of  verbs,  are  considered  as 
illigitimate  forms. 

37.  They  bare  a  pitcher  of  water  to  her. 

38.  The  boy  should  be  bounden  out  to  lam  a  trade. 

39.  They  brake  the  bands  asunder. 

40.  The  child  was  then  chidden  by  her  mother. 

41.  Man  shall  forsake  father,  and  mother,  and  clave  to  his 
wife. 

42.  He  drave  out  the  money  changers. 

43.  The  water  was  not  drunken  by  me.* 

44.  James  forgat  his  books. 

45.  I  gat  some  water  for  him. 

46.  The  deed  of  trust  was  holden  by  me. 

47.  The  horse  had  been  ridden  too  far. 

48.  He  had  shapen  the  board  to  his  mind. 


LESSON  XIV. 


WHATEVER   BELONGS   TO   ONE   THING   SHOULD   NOT  BE 
ASCRIBED   TO   ANOTHER. 

Rule  LXXXV. 

Whatever  belongs  to  one  thing  should  not 
be  ascribed  to  another;  as, 

Henry  has  a  new  pair  of  shoes.     The  newness  belongs  to 
the  shoe*; — not  to  the  pair.     Henry  has  a  pair  of  new  shoes. 

Specimen  of  Correcting  hy  Rule  LXXXV. 

[He  has  a  new  pair]  (of  gloves.) 
As  the  ntwne**  belongs  to  the  gloves,  and  not  to  the  pair,  the 
appropriation  of  new  to  pair,  is  a  violation  of  Rule  LXXXV. 
Rule ;  as  [He  has  a  pair]  (of  new  gloves.) 

*  Dr.  Webnter  *ays  that  drunk  as  a  verb  is  obsolete     But  this  is  not  so.    Nor  ia 
it  true  that  crew,  the  passed  tense  of  crow,  is  obsolete. 


876  SYNTAX. 


EXERCISES. 


1. 


I  bought  a  new  pair]  (of  boots.) 
2.  [Give  (me)  a  strong  cup]  (of  tea.) 
3. 
4. 


I  purchased  a  large  brace]  (of  partridges.) 
^He  has  a  fine  span]  (of  horses.) 

5.  f  He  has  a  fat  yoke]  (of  cattle.) 

6.  It  is  the  province  of  grammar  simply  to  determine  what  is 
correct  according  to  the  usage  of  reputable  writers. — J.  Frost's 
Grammar. 

7.  Adjectives  are  varied  only  to  express  their  degrees  of  com- 
parison.— Kirkham's  Grammar. 

8.  I  shall  notice  only  the  personal  pronouns. 

9.  This  is  a  good  tract  of  land. 

10.  He  only  promised  to  return  the  books. 

11.  Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism. 

12.  Only  those  lads  have  I  seen. 


LESSON  XV. 
This,  That,  These,  and  Those. 

The  distance  of  the  objects  from  the  speaker,  or  from 
him  in  reference  to  whom  they  are  mentioned,  is  one  of  the 
two  governing  principles  in  the  use  of  these  words.  As  the 
eye  is  the  organ  which  measures  distance,  I  have  placed  this 
organ  in  the  centre  of  The  Contrast. 

From  this  eye  appear  to  emanate  different  glances  which  point 
to  the  several  objects  within  its  vision.  These  glances  are  lettered, 
A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H.  The  glance  marked  A,  is  the  word  this. 
The  one  marked  B,  is  the  word  that. 

From  this  Diagram,  it  is  obvious,  that  this  refers  to  the  nearer 
thing ;  and  that  to  the  more  distant  one. 

D  is  those  ;  and  G  is  these.  D,  and  G,  are  plus :  those  is  the  plus 
of  that,  and  these,  of  this. 

It  is  the  same  principle  of  inequality  in  distance,  that  governs 
the  application  of  these,  and  those,  which  governs  the  use  of  this,  and 
that. 

SECOND   PRINCIPLE. 

The  second  principle  on  which  this,  that,  these,  and  those 
are  applied,  is  priority,  and  posteriority  in  mentioning  ob- 


SYNTAX. 


377 


378  SYNTAX. 

jects — this  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  different  dates.  In 
the  object  to  which  that,  B,  points,  you  find  priority,  1830. 
In  the  object  to  which  this,  A,  points,  you  find  posteriority, 
lool. 

You  see  from  these  different,  these  contrasted  dates,  that  thai 
points  to  the  first  thing  mentioned,  and  this  to  the  last. 

1831  1830  A  B 

{This,  that:  this,  that.) 

It  is  obvious  from  the  dates  that  those  refers  to  the  things  first 
mentioned  ;  and  these,  to  the  things  last  mentioned. 

A,  this      .         .         .     1831         G,  these      .         .         .     1831. 

B,  that     .         .         .     1830        D,  those     .         .         .     1830. 


THIRD  PRINCIPLE. 

The  third  principle  on  which  this,  and  that,  these,  and 
those  are  applied,  is  found  in  the  absence  of  the  nouns  to 
which  they  point.  This  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  blanks 
within  the  circles.  Where  A  points  to  an  expressed  noun, 
to  a  filled  circle,  H  refers  to  a  noeton  one. 

(If  you  will  take  this  book,)  [I  will  take  that    ,     .] 

1.  C  represents  this,    when  this  belongs  to  a  noeton  noun. 

2.  E  represents  these,  when  these  belongs  to  a  noeton  noun. 

3.  F  represents  those,  when  those  belongs  to  a  noeton  noun. 

4.  H  represents  that,  when  that  belongs  to  a  noeton  noun. 


A                     H 

This  man,  not  that    ,     . 

G                          F 

3.  These  books,  not  those 

B                       C 

That  book,  not  this    ,  '. 

D                          E 

4.  Those  books,  not  these 

1830 

1830 

"  In  the  city  we  are  entertained  by  the  works  of  man ;  in  the 

1831  1831  1831  1«0 

country  by  the  works  of  God  :  this  is  the  presence  of  nature ;  that 

1831  1830 

of  art :  these  astonish  us ;  those  we  comprehend." 

A  B  G  D 

This,  that         these,  those. 

REMARKS. 

They  who  wish  to  understand  what  is  called  English  Grammar, 
make  very  free  use  of  the  word,  those.     Many  of  ,them  apply  this 


SYNTAX.  379 


adjective  to  things  which  are  near  by.  For  instance — a  yonng 
lady  will  apply  it  to  gloves  which  she  is  holding ;  as,  "  What  is 
the  price  of  those  gloves  ?" 

Indeed,  persons  in  general,  seem  not  to  understand  the  proper 
character  of  this  word.  It  is  not  unfrequently  used  where  they 
should  be  employed ;  as,  Those  who  went  with  me,  returned  with 
them.     {They  who  went,  &c.) 

Those  is  often  employed  where  the  should  be  used;  as,  Those 
passages  of  Scripture  on  which  he  commented,  he  made  quite  plain. 
{The  passages,  &c.) 

The  following  application  of  those,  is  correct : — The  lecturer  read 
two  verses  in  the  New,  and  two  in  the  Old  Testament.  On  those  he 
made  few  comments — but  on  these  he  was  prolix. 

(The  Contrast  gives  the  true  character  of  those,  from  which  its 
proper  use  may  be  deduced.) 

In  the  following,  that  is  abused: — That  portion  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  which  I  have  selected  for  the  present  occasion,  is  re- 
corded in  John  v.  6.     {The  portion  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  &c.) 

The  learner  should  now  examine  the  writings  of  different  au- 
thors, to  find  where  they  have  been  happy,  and  where  unhappy, 
in  the  use  of  this,  that,  these,  and  those.  He  may  improve  their 
works,  and  his  own  mind  by  that  close  investigation  which  alone 
can  enable  this  to  read  those  with  pleasure  and  profit. 


LESSON  XVI. 

OP  The,  A,  An,  and  Such. 

Principle  I. 

Tlic  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  thing  mentioned  is  well 
known,  or  that  it  is  distinguished  from  other  things  of  a 
similar  kind  by  distinctive  circumstances,  either  expressed, 
or  implied  ;  as,  The  lion  is  a  noble  animal. 

Principle  II. 

A  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  thing  mentioned  is  not  well 
known,  or  that  it  is  not  distinguished  by  distinctive  circum- 
stances; as,  A  man  came  to  us,  who  saw  a  lion  near  us. — 
[See  page  93.] 

Note. — The  numerdiction  which  the  old  school  grammarians 
ascribe  to  a,  belongs  to  the  noun  to  which  a  is  applied.  This  is 
established  from  tha  consideration,  that  when  unity  is  the  leading 


38i)  SYNTAX. 

idea,  one,  not  a,  must  be  used ;  as,  How  many  books  have  you  ?   I 
have  one  book. 

[Here  the  adjective,  a,  cannot  be  substituted  for  one.]  (See  the 
Appeal  and  Exegesis.) 

Forms  of  A. 

This  adjective  is  employed  under  two  forms,  primitive, 
and  derivative. 

The  primitive  form  of  a,  is  an,  and  the  derivative  is  a. 
These  two  forms  are  divided  into  vowel,  and  consonant. 

Vowel  Form  of  An. 

An  is  the  vowel  form,  and  is  so  called  because  it  is  used 
when  the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound ;  as, 
An  article ;  There  is  not  an  ounce  of  reason  in  him ;  Get 
an  hour  glass ;  He  gave  me  an  historical  account ;  This  was 
an  heroic  man  ;  Give  me  an  urn. 

In  hour  glass,  h  is  perfectly  silent — hence,  hour  begins  with  a 
vowel  sound — our.  Therefore,  aw  should  be  used,  although  hour 
begins  with  a  consonant  letter. 

Although  historical  begins  with  a  consonant  letter,  it  begins  with 
a  vowel  sound ;  for  as  the  accent  is  on  the  second  syllable,  the  h  is 
almost  silent. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  heroic. 

Consonant  Form  of  An. 

The  consonant  form  of  an  is  a,  and  is  so  called  because  it 
is  used  when  the  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant 
sound ;  as,  He  purchased  a  house ;  he  had  a  wound  on  his 
hand;  He  gave  me  a  one  dollar  bill;  this  is  a  yew  tree ;  A 
unit ;  A  eulogy ;  A  ewer  pitcher. 

One  begins  with  the  sound  of  the  consonant  w — hence  a,  not  are, 
should  be  used. 

Eulogy  begins  with  the  consonant  sound  of  initial  y — hence,  an  is 
used  in  its  consonant  form. 

The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  yew  tree,  and  ewer. 


Rule  LXXXVL 

Where  the  things  are  tvell  Jenoivn,  or  where 
they  are  described  in  the  sentence  either  by 


SYNTAX.  381 

expression,  or  implication,  or  where  all  the 
things  are  included  by  the  noun,  the  should  be 
used;  as, 

The  sun  had  risen ;  Tlie  fig  tree ;  TJie  ox  knoweth  his 
master's  crib. 

Rule  LXXXVII. 

Where  the  thing  is  not  well  known,  or  where 
it  is  not  distinguished  in  the  sentence  by  the 
expression,  or  implication  of  a  distinctive  cir- 
cumstance, where  all  of  the  kind,  are  not  in- 
cluded, a,  or  an  should  be  used ;  as, 

A  bird  flew  from  the  branch  of  this  tree ;  An  hour  passed 
off  quickly. 

Note  I. 

When  the  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant  sound, 
a  is  used ;  as,  A  book  ;  A  book  hour.     [Hour  for  books.'] 

Note  II. 

When  the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound,  an 
is  used;  as,  An  hour  glass;  An  index. 

Such. 

Such  should  be  used  only  where  an  object  has  already 
been  spoken  of  in  reference  to  its  hind;  as,  Henry  has 
sweet  apples — such  as  you  like;  He  is  a  strange  man — I 
have  no  patience  with  such  persons ;  Such  a  temper  as  you 
have  described,  is  enough  to  keep  a  whole  family  unhappy. 

Note  I. 

Such  should  never  be  used  to  indicate  the  degree,  or  ratio 
to  which  a  thing  possesses  a  property ;  as,  Such  a  bad  man  ; 
I  have  rarely  seen  such  white  paper.  Such  beautiful  flowers 
I  have  seldom  seen. — Bullions' s  English  Grammar. 


382  SYNTAX. 

In  these  instances  so  should  be  used. 

1.  A  man  so  bad. 

2.  Such  white  paper.     Paper  so  white. 

3.  Such  beautiful  flowers,  I  have  never  seen.     I  have  never  seen 
flowers  so  beautiful. 


Note  II. 

When  so  is  a  sub,  the  sub,  and  the  principal  adjective  gene- 
rally follow  the  noun ;  as,  I  have  never  seen  flowers  so  charm- 
ing ;  He  has  never  brought  apples  so  large.  [Not,  I  have 
never  seen  so  charming  flowers ;  He  has  never  brought  so 
large  apples.] 


LESSON  XVII. 


DISTRIBUTION,  AND   INDIVIDUALITY  OP  OBJECTS. 

PRINCIPLES. 
Principle  I. 

Each  has  respect  to  things  which  are  individually  taken; 
and  it  may  be  applied  where  there  are  as  many  as  two;  as, 
Each  of  the  two ;  Each  of  the  six. 


Principle  II. 

Every  should  be  used  where  there  are  several,  or  more,  to 
be  taken  individually ;  as,  He  got  several  books ;  and  lost 
every  one ;  Nathaniel  saw  a  thousand  birds,  and  wanted 
every  one;  He  met  ten  beggars,  and  gave  every  one  a 
crown. 

Principle  III. 

Either,  as  well  as  neither,  should  be  applied  where  there 
are  but  two ;  as,  Either  of  the  two,  will  suit  me ;  He  is 
either  here,  or  there ;  Neither  of  the  two,  will  suit  me ;  He 
is  neither  here,  nor  there. 


SYNTAX.  383 


Rule  LXXXVIII. 


Where  the  demimono  cannot  be  used  without 
the  precession  of  so,  as,  so  as,  so  as  hereby,  or  so 
as  thereby,  it  should  not  be  employed;  as, 

As  an  art,  it  teaches  the  right  method  of  applying  these 
principles  to  a  particular  language,  so  as  thereby  (to  express 
our  thoughts)  in  a  correct,  and  proper  manner. — Bullions' s 
Grammar.     [Bad  in  several  respects.] 

Partially  Corrected. 

As  an  art,  it  teaches  the  method  of  applying  these  prin- 
ciples to  a  particular  language  in  a  way  which  enables  us  to 
express  our  thoughts  in  a  proper  manner. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete,  so  as  to  admit  of  a 
full  stop,  but  a  clause  is  added  by  way  of  illustration,  they  should 
be  separated  by  a  colon. — Rev.  B.  Frazee's  Grammar,  page  178. 

2.  The  words  which  an  author  employs  may  be  proper,  and  so 
constructed  as  to  violate  no  rule  of  syntax. — G.  Brown's  Gram- 
mar, p.  396. 

3.  A  sentence  is  a  number  of  words  so  arranged  as  to  form  a 
complete  proposition. — J.  Frost's  Grammar. 

4.  The  subject  is  so  simplified  as  to  render  it  unusually  easy  to 
the  learner. —J".  Orville  Taylor's  recommendation  of  Rev.  B.  Frazee's 
Grammar,  signed  by  thirty-seven  others. 

6.  [Syntax  treats]  (of  the  proper  method)  (of  arranging)  (words) 
(so  as  to  form  sentences  according)  (to  the  usage)  (of  the  most  ap- 
proved writers.) — J.  Frost's  Grammar. 

6.  Precision  consists  in  avoiding  all  superfluous  words,  and 
adapting  the  expression  exactly  to  the  thought,  so  as  to  exhibit 
neither  more  nor  less  than  is  intended  by  the  author. — G.  Brown's 
Grammar,  p.  298. 

Note. — So  should  not  precede  that;  as,  He  came  so  that  he  may 
see  his  mother. 

Should  it  be  asked  why  I  have  taken  the  Exercises  in  bad 
English  from  the  old  Grammars,  I  would  reply,  To  establish  the 
position  that  the  old  theory  cannot  enable  anyone,  even  a  professed 
grammarian,  to  use  the  English  language  with  propriety. 


384  SYNTAX. 

[I  have  not  drawn  upon  Mr.  Chandler  for  Exercises  in  bad 
English,  for  this  volume.  In  Book  III.,  however,  I  come  in  direct 
collision  with  him ;  and,  as  I  think  that  his  inability  to  use  the 
English  language  properly,  is  established  in  that  Book,  I  have 
taken  little  notice  of  him  in  this.] 


REMARKS. 

1.  In  general,  where  the  nature  of  the  case,  or  the  context,  re- 
stricts nouns  which  are  applicable  to  different  kinds  of  the  same 
thing,  to  the  sort  intended,  no  adjective  descriptive  of  the  kind 
intended,  needs  be  used;  as,  Each  boy  whose  attention  is  devoted 
exclusively  to  English  studies,  must  write  a  composition  every  week ; 
Every  member  of  the  English  class  must  write  a  composition  this 
afternoon ;  Each  one  of  the  class  which  is  attending  to  nothing  but 
English  branches,  must  recite  a  lesson  in  grammar  this  evening. 

2.  When  nouns  which  are  applicable  to  different  kinds  of  the 
same  thing  are  employed  as  titles  of  books,  &c,  words  descriptive 
of  the  kind  intended,  must  be  used ;  as,  A  Dictionary  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language  ;  Easy  Exercises  in  English  Composition ;  A  Gram- 
mar of  the  English  Language. 

1.  A  Dictionary  of  Language. 

2.  Easy  Exercises  in  Composition. — John  Frost. 

3.  An  English  Grammar  of  Language. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  phrase,  "■Easy  Exercises"  indicates  the 
kind  of  composition  so  clearly,  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  any 
adjective  before  composition,  to  express  the  kind.  But  does  this 
phrase  indicate  whether  these  Exercises  are  to  be  in  Latin  compo- 
sition, Greek  composition,  French  composition,  or  English  compo- 
sition ?  The  word,  Dictionary,  indicates  that  the  work  is  on  lan- 
guage— but  does  this  fact  preclude  the  necessity  of  English,  Latin, 
Greek,  or  some  equivalent  adjective  before  the  noun,  language? 

If  any  thing  could  justify  the  omission  of  English  before  Grammar, 
it  is  the  use  of  this  word  before  Language ;  as,  A  Grammar  of  the 
English  Language. 


FORCE,  OR  STRENGTH  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

DEFINITION. 

The  force,  or  strength  of  a  sentence,  is  the  power  which 
it  exerts  in  making  a  deep  impression  upon  the  mind. 

The  force  of  a  sentence  is  mainly  derived  from  the  just  position 
of  words,  and  monos. 


SYNTAX  385 


Principle  I. 

In  the  construction  of  a  sentence,  the  mono  which  ex- 
presses the  main  thing,  the  centra!  point  of  thought,  should 
occupy  a  conspicuous  place. 

This  principle  rests  upon  two  things, — first,  an  obscure  position 
would  ill  comport  with  the  dignity  of  the,  principal  mono  in  tho 
sentence;  and,  secondly,  it  might  hold  the  reader  in  suspense 
longer  than  is  agreeable,  or  necessary. 


CLEARNESS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

DEFINITION. 

The  clearness  of  a  sentence  is  the  distinctness  with  which 
the  ideas  are  expressed. 

The  clearness  of  a  sentence  is  mainly  derived  from  appropriate 
words,  in  proper  positions. 

1.  In  general,  the  introductory  sentence  should  be  short. 

2.  Other  sentences  should  neither  be  extremely  short,  nor  ex- 
tremely long. 

3.  Avoid  too  great  a  uniformity  in  the  length  of  sentences. 

4.  A  sentence  which  includes  so  many  things,  facts,  and  circum- 
stances, that  it  is  more  properly  called  a  dissertation  than  a  sen- 
tence, must  be  weak,  and  obscure. 

5.  The  omission  of  which  in  certain  monos,  seems  to  weaken 
the  tchole  sentence ;  as,  The  conquests  he  gained ;  The  land  he 
possessed.      Which  he  gained — which  he  possessed. 

(>.  Redundant  words  are  destructive  to  the  strength  of  a  sentence. 
This  may  be  seen  from  the  weakness  which  the  redundant  parts 
of  the  following  period,  produce  : — 

Great  ideas  precede,  and  cause  illustrious  achievements. — 
Preface  to  "Class  Book  of  Poetry,  by  John  S.  Hart,  A.M., 
Principal  of  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  and  member  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society." 

As  the  cause  never  follows  its  effect,  where  is  the  use  of  precede  t 
Great  ideas  cause  illustrious  achievements.     (Precede,  and. ) 

Those  great  ideas,  ichuh  in  the  course  of  centuries,  have 
been  gradually  developed  by  Us  master  minds,  are  the  mov- 
ing springs  that  have  set  the  nation  onward  in  the  career  of 
civilization. — Same  Preface. 

83 


386  •  SYNTAX. 

The  great  ideas  developed  for  centuries  are  the  moving  springs 
of  a  nation  in  its  career  of  civilization. 

(Redundant  words — which,  course,  in,  the,  of,  gradually,  have,  set, 
that,  onward,  by,  its,  master,  minds — 14.) 


DIRECTIONS  TO  LEARNERS. 

To  form  proper  sentences,  requires  appropriate  materials,  and 
skilful  workmen. 

Sentences,  in  general,  resemble  bread,  made  of bad  flour,  kneaded 
by  ignorant  cooks,  raised  with  dead  yeast,  and  poorly  baked  in  ill- 
formed  loaves. 

To  form  proper  sentences,  you  must, 

1.  Ascertain  the  precise  character  of  the  ideas  which  you  wish  to 
express. 

2.  Select  the  words  which  will  express  these  ideas  with  exact- 
ness. 

3.  Employ  neither  low,  nor  vulgar  words. 

4.  Employ  no  technical  words,  unless  your  subject  requires  their 
use. 

5.  Use  no  learned  (big)  words. 

6.  Mix  no  Latin,  Greek,  or  French  words  with  your  English. 

7.  Give  the  word  which  denotes  the  main  idea,  a  conspicuous 
place  in  the  mono. 

8.  Give  the  trone  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  sentence. 

9.  Be  particular  to  arrange  the  words,  and  the  monos,  according 
to  the  Rules  on  position. 

10.  Admit  no  irrelevant  matter  into  your  sentences. 

11.  Do  not  express  what  is  obvious  from  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

12.  Do  not  express  the  same  idea  twice. 

13.  If  possible,  you  should  avoid  the  repetition  of  a  word  in  the 
same  sentence. 

14.  Pay  particular  attention  to  uniformity  in  the  themes,  and  to 
sameness  in  reladiction,  and  numerdiction. 

15.  Write  upon  nothing  in  which  you  feel  little,  or  no  interest. 

16.  Do  not  be  too  ready  to  use  the  ideas  of  others :  think  for 
yourselves. 

17.  Do  not  employ  the  language  of  others — write  out  of  your 
head,  not  out  of  their  books. 

18.  Be  certain  that  you  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 


SYNTAX. 


387 


structive  principles  of  the  language  before  you  attempt  to  write 
much. 

19.  Write  upon  nothing  which  you  do  not  understand. 

20.  Monoize  every  sentence  which  you  form,  read,  or  hear. 


STYLE. 


Style  is  the  distinguishing  turn,  cast,  air,  or  trait,  in  the 
character  of  a  sentence.     Style  is  divided  into 


1.  Affected. 

2.  Bombastic 

3.  Concise. 

4.  Diffuse. 

5.  Easy. 

6.  Elegant. 

7.  Epistolary. 

8.  Feeble.. 

9.  Florid. 

10.  Flowing. 

11.  Harsh. 

12.  Lofty. 

[Style  is  treated  of  in  Book  III.] 


IS.  Loose. 

14.  Neat. 

15.  Nervous. 

16.  Negligent. 

17.  Obscure. 

18.  Perspicuous. 

19.  Simple. 

20.  Stiff. 

21.  Terse. 

22.  Tumid. 

23.  Verbose. 


THE  END. 


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